Table of Contents
Agenda Item: War of the Spanish Succession
Distinguished delegates and participants of MUNZ’25,
First and foremost I welcome all of you to the second annual edition of MUNZ. My name is Ferhat Deniz Kale and I am currently a junior student studying at Zafer College, it is my utmost pleasure to welcome all of you as the Secretary General of this conference.
It certainly was not easy to prepare this conference but I wholeheartedly believe that all of you will enjoy what we will be offering for the next 3 days both academically and organizationally, to me MUN conferences are both extremely entertaining and improve one’s ability to critically think and speaking skills and one of the main reasons why I am still attending conferences for the past 2-3 years.
I believe that the study guides of your respective committee will have extensive information and shall help you research on the agenda items. With that being said I want to thank my first Deputy Secretary General Boran Alabay for assisting me on certain matters. Additionally I want to thank my Deputy Secretary General Volkan for being an amazing friend and helper throughout my mun journey. He is essentially like a brother to me and I couldn’t be more thankful for that, additionally I want to thank my Head of Crisis Ulaşcan Tunçinan for being one of, if not, the greatest person I have ever met, without him I would not be here writing this letter, also I especially thank my Academic Advisor Görkem Can Coşkun for always being with me and helping me with academic and general matters. I could not have asked for a more loyal and trustworthy person, without him this conference wouldn’t be the same. With that being said I lastly want to thank the whole academic team for their efforts, they are some of the greatest people I have ever met and definitely some of the most hardworking people out there.
I hope that MUNZ’25 will be an enjoyable conference to all of you, I wish you the best of luck during the committees. Looking forward to see all of you!
Yours sincerely
Ferhat Deniz Kale
Secretary General of MUNZ’25
Dear Esteemed Delegates,
As your Under-Secretary General in the Joint Crisis Committee: War of the Spanish Succession, I welcome you all to MUNZ’25. I am Taha Ersoy and I am an eleventh-grader at Ankara Atatürk High School. I would like to thank our dear Secretary General, Ferhat Deniz Kale, for giving me this opportunity. I would like to thank Boran Alabay, our Deputy-Secretary-General, Volkan Unver, our Second Deputy Secretary General, Sarp Ari, our Director General, Kaan Yusuf, out Deputy-Director General and lastly, Ceren Gemici, our Second Deputy-Director General for organizing this prestigious conference.Also I would like to thank my Academic Assistant, Ekin Dal for his great efforts in forging this committee. Lastly, I want to thank my partner in crime, Eylül Koçak, for being my forever supporter, both in MUN conferences and in life.
The War of the Spanish Succession is a very wide-scaled war, affecting nearly the entirety of Europe. The war is very detailed and has many aspects to be considered for every belligerent. Throughout the committee, you will experience both foreign and domestic crises that you will need to resolve in order to maintain your rule in your empire. The document we have written with my dear Academic Assistant includes a detailed explanation of the succession crisis, the war itself and the Spanish administration. It is crucial for you delegates to understand the functions of administration in order to resolve the crises awaiting your nation.
The committee is detailed and it is crucial for you to understand the topic, so you can always reach out to me if you have any questions. I am certain that you will have an outstanding experience at MUNZ’25 and am excited to see you all on the 14th of February.
Best Regards,
Taha Ersoy
Dear Esteemed Delegates,
As your Academic Assistant in the Joint Crisis Committee: War of the Spanish Succession, it is my distinct pleasure to extend a warm welcome to you all. My name is Ekin Dal and I am a 10th Grader. As your Academic Assistant, I am thrilled to be a part of this esteemed conference gathering of passionate individuals to change history with their directives.
I would like to start by thanking King John Lackland of England himself, Ferhat Deniz Kale, for organizing this splendid conference. He has been one of my first MUN friends who I am still friends with and recently as we have been a team in another conference, I got to know him even more. Again, I would like to thank him for everything he has done for this conference. By the way, this part is written personally for him, if I had one more day, I would have done even worse things to you my friend. Secondly, I would like to thank Boran Alabay, our Deputy-Secretary-General, Volkan Unver, our Second Deputy Secretary General, Sarp Ari, our Director General, Kaan Yusuf, out Deputy-Director General and lastly, Ceren Gemici, our Second Deputy-Director General for organizing this prestigious conference. At the same time, I would like to thank Biden, The Pope, The Bishop of Cantenbury, The Dutch Merchant and The Ekler Man himself, Gorkem Can Coskun for assisting these individuals in organizing this Conference. While I will be making a long speech during the closing ceremony, I would like to thank my Under-Secretary-General, Taha Ersoy for giving me this opportunity to be his academic assistant. He was the person who taught me all the Crisis Committee knowledge that I have today. Without him, I wouldn’t be in this place today, in a Crisis Committee as an Academic Assistant. I can not thank him enough for all his efforts.
Please do not hesitate to reach out to me or any member of the secretariat if you have any questions or concerns. My Email is: ekinaviation@gmail.com and it is always open for any emails. We are here to support you every step of the way and ensure that your MUNZ 25 experience is both rewarding and memorable. Once again, welcome to MUNZ 25.
Best regards,
Ekin Dal
War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714), was a conflict between the major European powers to determine the ruler of Spain. After the former king, Carlos II, died in 1700, the Spanish throne was left vacant, for the king did not have any children to succeed him. The Habsburg family was large, however, and many European powers linked with the Habsburg line claimed their rights to succeed the Spanish throne. The French Empire was one of the most aggressive nations in Europe by then and Louis XIV claimed the right of his grandson, Philip of Anjou, to succeed the Spanish throne. On the other hand, Leopold I, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, claimed the right of his son, Archduke Charles who was directly from the Habsburg line, to succeed the throne. The rivalry for the succession gradually escalated and with the aggressive approach of Louis XIV, Europe was embroiled in a bloody war that lasted nearly 14 years.
The Spanish Empire, also known as the Hispanic Monarch stretches its establishment to the Reconquista Period which began in the year of 718 with The Battle of Covadonga and ended in 1492 when Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile conquered the city of Granada. During this Period, the Castilian Kings have been doing series of economic agreements with the Moorish taifa client-kingdom of Granada by decreasing the tributes for gold that is entering Europe to ensure that gold from the Northern African region arrived at Europe for usage and trading. At the same time, during this period, The Kingdom of Castile was also intervening in the Northern African region physically, commencing a series of operations to compete with the Portuguese Empire to acquire control over the gold and other important resource extraction points in Northern Africa.
On the 19th of October, 1469, in the city of Valladolid, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile got married and created a confederation of reigns, each with their own administrations. The unification of the major Spanish Kingdoms assisted the newly formed confederation in acquiring political and financial stability which is needed for future overseas colonization operations. In the year of 1494, when Ferdinand I of Naples died, his son Alfonso II came to the control. As a result, the Kingdom of France noticed the political vulnerabilities of the Aragonese Household of Naples. Due to this, the Aragonese Household faced a series of invasions from Charles VIII of France. To protect the dynastic ties and block the French expansion to the Mediterranean, Ferdinand II assisted the Aragonese Household by sending direct Spanish Forces to the City of Naples under the control of Gonzala Fernandez de Cordoba, also known as El Gran Capitan, to initiate series of innovative military strategies to defeat French Forces. At the same time, multiple Spanish Fleets were sent to the Naples Region to protect the Naval Surface of the area. Ferdinand II also assisted the Aragonese Household by providing Economic, Logistical and Political assistance. In the year of 1492, the Spanish succeeded in throwing out the last Moorish King of Granda from Europe. As a result of this major victory over the Moorish Kingdoms in Europe, Ferdinand II adopted an aggressive policy for expansion of Spanish jurisdiction by conducting a series of negotiations with famous Spanish Genose Sailor, Christopher Columbus with the aim of reaching Cipangu by sailing west. However, Columbus instead inadvertently discovered America, inaugurating the Spanish colonization of the continent. After the major discovery of the continent of America, Ferdinand modified his expansion of Spain’s sphere of influence by increasing efforts made in Italian soil against the French Kingdom. Ferdinand’s first investment of Spanish Forces came in the War of the League of Cambrai against Venice, where the Spanish soldiers distinguished themselves on the field alongside their French Allies at the Battle of Agnadello (1509). As 1 year passed, Ferdinand became a member of the Holy League against the Kingdom of France as he saw a chance to take both the cities of Milan and Navarre which he held dynastic claims. However, the wars were not much of a Success against Venice, and at the end of 1516, the Kingdom of France agreed in a negotiation between the Spanish by taking control over the city of Milan while leaving the control of the Upper Navarre to the Spanish. After the successful negotiations of Hispaniola in the early 1500s, the colonists under the Spanish Control entered new expeditions to start new successful settlements. From these expeditions, Juan Ponce de Leon conquered Puerto Rico, Diego Velazquez took Cuba and as the First Mainland settlement acquired by the Spanish in the Continent of America was settled in 1512, in the region of Panama by Vasco Nunez de Balboa. These Castilian Empire expedition efforts assisted the Spanish in Europe by being the source of wealth and power within Europe. At the same time, these efforts have also contributed to inflation as American Silver made the Spanish economy depend on foreign sources of raw materials and manufactured goods. During these years, as the Spanish Economy was in a much better shape than other European States, while France and England was suffering from Social Revolutions, in Spain, these revolutions were nonexistent.
During the 16th and 17th Centuries, Spain entered a period also known as “The Golden Age of Spain”. It was said that during this period, the sun had never set in Spain. During this period, the unwieldy empire of the Siglo de Oro was controlled from the city of Seville. İt can be said that the Empire of Charles and his successors was not only Spaniard and Castillian. By the information gathered from many notorious historians including Henry Kamen states that Spanish Empire was a multiethnic enterprise with:
During the wars in Europe during this period, the American and Castilian riches defaulted on their debt and left the Spanish people in bankruptcy. On the other hand, due to these economic failures, new goals were established including:
Due to the marriage politics that were established by the Reyes Catolicos, their grandson Charles inherited the Castilian empire in america, the Aragonese Empire in the Mediterranean, as well as the crown of the Holy Roman Empire and of the Low countries and Franche-Comte. This empire was only conducted in inherited territories only. Once the Castilian Rebels were majorly defeated in the Castilian War, Charles became the most powerful man in the whole Europe, his Authority and Jurisdiction being the largest in the continent of Europe until the French Empire of Napoleon Bonapart. During this time period, Charles attempted to put an end to the Protestant Reformation which was taking place at the Diet of Worms but Luther refused to recant his “heresy”.
Following the discovery of the New World, also known as Americas, made by Christoper Columbus in the year of 1492, the colonization of the newly discovered continent was continued by a series of pirate-like explorers called the “Conquistadors”. During these colonization efforts, while many of the native tribes in the Americas were opposing to the Spanish Colonization of their territories to protect their own culture and future, some of the tribes such as Tlaxcalans, Cakchiquels, Tainos, Huastec and Totonac and Chachapoya were happily accepting the offers made by the Conquistadors to form alliances and defeat their much more powerful enemies including Aztecs and Incas. However, while the colonization efforts were taking place in the Americas, multiples of diseases like Smallpox were being transported to the Americas by the usage of ships without being known and being spreaded to the local tribes causing decimates in native American population. The most notorious Conquistador was Herman Cortes, who is known for defeating and colonizing the powerful Aztec Empire between the years of 1520-1521 by the assists of thousands of Amerindian Allies that he had gathered from previously colonized territories in the Americas. As a result of the war which took place between the Aztec Empire and The Spanish Empire, the Mexican Region became a part of the Spanish Empire which became the basis of the colony of New Spain aftermaths. As a second example, the second most notorious Conquistador was Francisco Pizarro who is known for conquering Mexico and starting the rumors of golden Cities in the regions of Cibola and El Dorado which resulted in more expeditions to be conducted in those regions in search for those golden cities. However, many Conquistadors returned back to Spain without finding any valuable items during the searches. While the colonization efforts were taking place, in the year of 1521, Francis I of France invaded the Spanish controlled territories in Italy to save his control from being fully surrounded by Habsburg control. As a result of these invasion attempts, Francis caused a second round of Franco-Spanish conflict. However, the wars ended as a disaster on Francis’ side as they suffered a major defeat at Bicocca (1522), Pavia (1525) when Francis I of France was captured and Landriano (1529) which took place before Francis abandoned and fled Milan to Spain once again.
After Charles’s victory at the Battle of Pavia which took place in the year of 1525, many Italians and Germans were surprised over the victory of Charles. This resulted in Italian and German individuals being concerned whether Charles would take more political actions to advance his power in the Continent or not. At the same time, Pope Clement VII decided on switching sides and joining forces with France and prominent Italian states against the Habsburg Emperor in the War of the League of Cognac. When the dates showed the year of 1527, Charles became exhausted with the Pope’s interference in what he believed as purely secular affairs, and sacked the city of Rome himself, embarrassing the Papacy sufficiently enough that Clement and succeeding popes, were considerably more circumspect in their dealings with secular authorities: in the year of 1533, Pope Clements own decision of refusing to to conduct the annul Henry VII of England’s marriage was a direct consequence of his unwillingness to offend the emperor and have his capital perhaps sacked a second time. After these events, in the year of 1529, The Peace of Barcelona was signed between Charles and the Pope setting up a coordinated relationship between the two leaders which named the Spain as the main protector of the Catholic cause and recognized of Charles as King of Lombardy in return for Spanish intervention in overthrowing the rebellious Florentine Republic.
Secondly, as colonization efforts in the Americas were advancing every single day, the first Spanish settlements were being established in the regions of New Granada (modern Colombia) in the 1530s and Buenos Aires being established in 1536. After 7 years, in the year of 1543, Francis I of France announced his newly formed alliance with the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent after taking control over the Spanish-controlled city of Nice with the assistance of Turkish forces. During this period, after developing a great grudge against France, Henry VIII of England joined Charles in his invasion of France. While the Spanish forces were majorly being defeated at the Battle of Ceresole in the city of Savoy, Henry’s army managed to defeat the French forces and gain a major win against the French which forced the French to accept terms to cease fire for a dedicated time period. At the same time period, the Austrian Forces led by Charles’s younger brother Ferdinand continued on fighting the Ottoman Forces in the East of Europe while Charles went to take care of an older problem also known as The Schmalkaldic League. The League was formed by the alliance formed with the French while efforts in Germany to clear the history of the league were still being continued. After the major defeat of Francis in the year of 1544, invalidation of the alliance which was formed with the Protestants, Charles took advantage of this opportunity. Firstly, in 1545, he tried to negotiate a diplomatic path with the Council of Trent, however, with the Protestant leadership feeling betrayed by the attitude taken by the Catholics at the council, went on a war which was led by Saxon elector Maurice. As a response to the attacks conducted by Maurice, Charles invaded Germany with a Dutch-Spanish army with the hopes of securing Imperial authority in German Soil. However, the emperor suffered a great defeat against the Protestants at the Historic battle of Muhlberg which took place in the year of 1547. After 8 years, when the dates showed the year of 1555, to restore the stability in the German Territory, Charles signed the Peace Agreement of Augsburg with the Protestant states. After Charles’s involvement in Germany, it was secondly established that Spain was the protector of the Catholic and Habsburg cause in the Holy Roman Empire. While peace negotiations were in action, Charles had preferred to conduct a series of attacks towards the Ottoman Forces the usage of maritime strategies, hampering Ottoman landings on the Venetian territories in the Eastern Mediterranean.
In the year of 1556, Charles V’s only legitimate son, Philip II was born. When he was allowed to enter politics, he was authorized to share the Austrian possessions with his brother Ferdinand. In his command, he saw Castille as the foundation of his Empire, however, he was aware of the fact that the population of the city of Castille was not enough to provide mass amounts of soldiers to support the army personnel needs of the Empire. In a thought of covering this personnel need, he married Mary Tudor establishing an alliance between England and Spain commands.However, this did not mean Spain was in a full peace situation as a very aggressive individual known as Henry II of France came to throne in the year of 1547 who reestablished series of conflicts with Spain. As a response, Philip II aggressively attacked the French army at the Battle of St. Quentin in the City of Picardy in 1558 and secondly defeated Henry again at the Battle Of Gravelines which took place in the same year as Battle of St. Quentin. As France suffered 2 major defeats against Spain, they were forced to sign the Peace of Cateau-Cambresis in the year of 1559 which stated permanent recognition of Spanish claims in Italian soil.However, during the celebrations which took place after the treaty, Henry II of France was killed by a stray splinter from a lance which resulted in France strickening for the next thirty years by chronic civil war and unrest which caused France to not compete with the Spanish and The Habsburg Family as effectively as in previous years. While the French were in this dark period, Spain saw this as an advantage and conducted a series of territorial advancements and reached its biggest and mightiest territorial reach between the years of 1559 and 1643. On the other hand, for Philip II, it can not be said that he personally was in a great period. After the opening of The Genoese Banking Consortium, Philip II was in a state of bankruptcy in the year of 1557 which caused massive chaos between German Banking houses and ended the reign of the fuggers as Spanish financiers. As the Genoese Banking Consortium was established, their bankers provided the Habsburg system with constant fluid credit and regular income depending on the economical situation of the Consortium. Conversely, the Region of Florida was colonized in the 1560s. At the same time, the first permanent Spanish settlement was established in the Philippines by Miguel Lopez de Legaspi and the service of Manila Galleon was inaugurated in the year of 1572. After the notorious wins over French and the beginning of France’s religious wars, Philips’ ambition to advance his jurisdiction grew. In the year of 1565, the Spanish forces managed to defeat an Ottoman Landing attempt on the strategic island of Malta by the use of Knights of St. John. After the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, his son, Selim the Sot, emboldened Philip. In 1571, The Battle of Lepanto took place between the Spanish-Venetian Warships that were assisted by volunteers across Europe which were commanded by Don John of Austria against the Ottoman Naval Forces. At the end of their war, Ottomans were annihilated. As a result, Ottoman fleets were forced to retreat back which ended the Ottoman Naval threat in Western Mediterranean which caused a period of decline for the Ottoman Empire.
Although this time period for rejoicing in Madrid was short-lived. In 1566, by the aim of restoring order which was broken by the riots led by Calvinists, the Duke of Alva marched towards the Netherlands. In the year of 1568, a failed attempt to throw Alva out of the Netherlands was conducted by William the Silent. These little minor attacks signalled the start of the Eighty Years War which ended with the independence of the United Provinces. However, during the stay of the Spanish in the Netherlands, they were highly satisfied due to gaining access to normally expensive items by the usage of ports including Port of Antwerp. At the same time, these ports were strategically important in rescuing the order of the surrounding areas as they were being used as Military Camps. As a response to the acts made by the Spanish, in the year of 1572, a band of rebel Dutch privateers known as the Watergeuzen (“Sea Beggars”) seized the control of a series of Dutch Coastal towns stating their support for William against the Spanish leadership in Netherlands soil. However, on the other hand, for the Spanish the war was a slowly-growing event. In the Year of 1576, the Spanish army under the command of Luis de Requesens was forced to retreat and replan their Siege of Leiden after a group of Dutch Rebels broke the dykes causing extensive flooding of the surrounding area. In 1576, Philip faced heavy billings of his army of 80,000 which he used during the occupation of the Netherlands and the massive fleet that had won at Lepanto. As a result, he had to accept his second bankruptcy. Due to insufficient funding to the army in the Netherlands, shortly after seizing Antwerp and looting the southern Netherlands which caused previously peaceful cities to join rebellion, the army revolted and conducted more looting activities in the southern regions of Netherlands. Due to the limited commanding permissions of the army in the Netherlands, Spanish command chose the route of negotiation, and calmed down most of the Southern provinces again with the Union of Arras in 1579. In the Aras Agreements, it required all Spanish troops to leave the Dutch lands which were accepted by the Spanish. In 1580, this agreement provided a short window to King Philip to improve his position when the final member of the Portuguese royal Family, Cardinal Henry of Portugal died due to natural reasons. As a result of this, Philip declared a weak claim to the Portuguese throne and when the months showed June, he ordered the Duke of Alba to be sent to the City of Lisbon to assure his succession over Portuguese control. In 1582, when Philip II moved his court back to the city of Madrid from the Atlantic port of Lisbon where he temporarily settled to pacify his new Portuguese Kingdom, the pattern was sealed, in spite of what every observant commentator privately noted: “Sea power is more important to the ruler of Spain than any other Prince” wrote a commentator, “for it is only by sea power that a single community can be created out of so many so far apart.” While Spain was reeling from the bankruptcy that occurred in the year of 1576, Portugal required an extensive army force to keep the region under control. In the year of 1584, a notorious Dutch resistance leader known as William the Silent was assassinated by a half-deranged Catholic which was first thought that it would bring an end to the war which it failed to. In 1586, Queen Elizabeth I of England assisted Protestant causes by sending support troopers to the Netherlands and France while Sir Francis Drake established a series of attacks against Spanish Merchant ships sailing in the Caribbean and the Pacific, along with the addition of a notorious aggressive attack to the Port of Cadiz. In 1588, Philip sent the Spanish Armada to England in hopes of putting an end to Elizabeth’s assistance to the Protestants. However, the end was disastrous for the Spanish Side, suffering a massive humiliation. After a series of defeats, Spain started investing in religious warfare in France after Henry II’s and Henry II deaths at the walls of Paris, Henry IV of Navarre started winning key victories against the Catholic League at Aques (1589) and Ivry (1590). To prevent Henry of Navarre from becoming the King of France, the Spanish divided their army in the Netherlands and invaded France in the year of 1590.
After being in a war against England, France and Netherlands with each having highly capable army leaders, the bankrupt Spanish Empire entered an even more desperate situation. At the same time, while tensions within Europe were rising, piracy in the Atlantic Ocean continued their efforts to block the passage of the gold shipment from the New World. As a result, Spain had to declare its bankruptcy in the year of 1596. To solve these issues, Spain first attempted to decrease the tensions within Europe by conducting a series of peace negotiations. The first negotiation signed within this period was the Treaty of Vervins with France in the year of 1598. This treaty stated the recognition of Henry IV as the King of France and many other stipulations from the previous Peace of Cateau-Cambresis were also restored in the Treaty of Vervins. While conducting a series of negotiations with France, Spain also established Peace negotiations with the English in the year of 1604 to decrease the political tensions between the Spanish and the English. After securing peace between Spain, England and France, the Spanish Empire focused their forces and resources to restore their rule to the Dutch provinces. However, the Spanish had a great barrier against them from continuing their plans. After the death of William the Silent, his son, Maurice of Nassau, who is known as the greatest strategist of its time had managed to take control over numbers of bordering cities since 1590, including the strategically important location Fortress of Breda. During this period, a new Spanish Commander known as Ambrosio Spinola was assigned to the Dutch problem, however, he failed miserably in his attacks to the Netherlands against the United Provinces due to the newly renewed bankruptcy of The Spanish Empire. As a result of his failed attacks, in the year of 1609, the “Twelve Years” truce was signed between the Spanish and the United Provinces in the aim of securing the peace in the Dutch Region. During this truce, Spain mainly focused on restoring its previous prestige, stability and economical level. To reach this goal, Spain established a series of new passage routes from Spain to the New World to regain supply of the Gold, Silver and Leather to assist their economy. At the same time, they have conducted a series of Trade negotiations with various commands. However, after the death of Philip II, his son, Philip III was assigned to the Spanish Throne. Philip III was a man of limited ability uninterested in politics, preferring to allow others to take care of the details. Due to his disinterest, he assigned the highly capable Duke of Lerma as his Chief Minister. However, after 8 years, in 1618, the King replaced him with Don Balthasar de Zuniga, a veteran ambassador to Vienna. He believed that the key to restraining the resurgent French and eliminating the Dutch was a closer alliance with Habsburg Austria. In the year of 1618, with the start of the Defenestration of Prague, Austria and the Holy Roman Emperor started a campaign against the Protestant Union and Bohemia. While tensions were increasing in Europe, Zuniga encouraged Philip to enter the war on the Austrian Habsburgs side. After careful consideration, Philip III came to the final decision on assigning Ambrogio Spinola as the Head of the Army of Flanders to assist the war. As a result, Spain entered the Thirty Years’ War. Once the dates showed the year of 1621, the ineffective King of Spain, Phillip III was replaced by his successor, a much more religious individual, Phillip IV. Due to this throne change, one year later, in the year of 1622, Head Minister Zuniga was replaced with an honest and reliable individual, Gaspar de Guzman. After afew years of stalemate, Bohemians were defeated at White Mountain in the year of 1621, and again at Stadtlohn in 1623. After these major wins against the Bohemians and the defeat of the Protestant in Germany, in Madrid, there was a hope that Netherlands would finally be under Spanish control. Perfidious France was once again involved in her own instabilities, and Spain’s eminence seemed irrefutable. The Count-Duke Olivarse stridently affirmed that “God is Spanish and fights for our Holy Nation these days…”. After this statement, many of Spain’s opposers may have agreed obstinately.
Oliver was a man of peace; he believed that Spain needs a reform which can be achieved by establishing peace. Due to this, destruction of the United Provinces became one of his key goals to establish the needed reform as many wars that were against Habsburg were funded by Dutch money. As Dutch Bankers stood behind East India merchants of Seville, and Dutch entrepreneurships were located all around the world which aimed in undermining the Spanish and Portuguese hegemony. To block the Dutch Trade Chain, Spinola and the Spanish army focused their strength on the Netherlands. When the dates showed the year of 1627, the Castilian Economy saw its collapse. The prices within Spain had exploded after debasing their currency to pay the war expenses. Until 1631, parts of Castile operated on a barter economy as a result of the economical currency crisis within Spain. Due to this crisis, Spanish armies in German Soil were forced to cover their own expenses by using the land they were located in. On the other hand, the Spanish Government was unable to collect any meaningful taxes from the peasantry due to the currency’s worth. Olivares, who had backed certain tax measures in Spain pending the completion of the war, was further blamed for an embarrassing and fruitless war in Italy. During the Twelve years’ Truce, the Dutch made their navy as their main priority which made the Spanish Navy devastated in Maritime Trade as most of their Marine Trade Passage Routes were being blocked or attacked which negatively assisted the Spanish in the Economic collapse. Due to the Spanish armada being destroyed, the Dutch had no barriers in front of them to cease the attacks on the Marine Trading Routes of Spain. In 1630, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, one of history’s most noted commanders, landed in Germany and relieved the port of Stralsund that was the last stronghold on the continent led by German forces belligerent to the Emperor. As he continued his attacks, Gutavus won notable victories at Breitenfeld and Lutzen which attracted greater support for Protestant cause as he marched forward. However, in the year of 1632 in the battle of Lutzen, Gutavus’s death improved the situation of the Catholic cause as it assisted the Catholics on winning the Battle of Nordlingen in the year of 1634. After a series of German defeats, the Emperor approached the war-weary German States with a Peace negotiation in the year of 1635. This negotiation was accepted by many commands including the two most powerful:
Cardinal Richelieu had been a strong source of support of the Dutch and the protestant since the early days of the war, assisting them by sending funds and equipment that were required to stem Habsburg strength in Europe. Within a month after the signing of the Peace of Prague, Richelieu believed that the Peace treaty was contrary to the French designs. Due to this, he declared war on the Holy Roman Emperor and The Spanish Empire. However, as Spanish forces were much more experienced than the forces that were sent by Cardinal, they scored a notorious victory against the forces; Olivares ordered a lighting campaign into Northern France from the Spanish Netherlands, in hopes of shattering the resolve of King Louis XIII’s ministers and toppling Richelieu. In the year of 1636, during the “annee de Corbie”, Spanish forces managed to advance as far as south of Corbie, alarming Paris which could put an end to the war if taken control. However, while everything was going on the Spanish’s side in the French Fronth, the Spanish fleet suffered a great defeat against the Dutch fleet in the Battle of the Downs. As a result of the major defeat, Spanish Forces were unable to send further supplies to the army located in Dutch territory. At the same time, in the year of 1643, The Spanish Army of Flanders, which represented the finest Spanish soldiers and leadership faced a surprise French Invasion led by Louis II de Bourbon. The Spanish Army were devastated as most of their infantry troopers were killed or captured by the French Cavalry Forces. At the end of the war, the Spains’ reputation within Europe was heavily damaged.
It is marked that after the Spanish Defeat in the battle of Rocroi which took place in the year of 1643, the Spanish dominance in the continent of Europe came to an end. This claim is supported as many revolts have occurred in the 1640s by the French, the Catalonians, Neapolitans and the Portuguese against the Spanish. At the same time, with the Spanish defeated against the Dutch in the Battle of Lens in 1648, Spanish was forced to establish a peace treaty with the Dutch and as a result, they were forced to recognize the independent United provinces in the Peace of Westphalia that ended both the Eighty Years’ War and the Thirty Years’ War. However, the war with the French continued on for eleven more years after the Peace Negotiations were made. During this war period between Spanish and French, France was in a civil war between the years of 1648 and 1652 however this did not create an opportunity for Spain to commence major attacks on French soil due to the economical issues that were still happening in Spain. Even though there were not notorious battles in French Soil, in the year of 1648, Naples was retaken and Catalonia was retaken in 1652, but the war that bridged an end to tensions between French and Spanish was the Battle of Dunes which took place in the year of 1658 when the French army defeated the Spanish army of The Netherlands. After the battles were concluded, Spain agreed to the peace of the Pyrenees when the dates showed the year of 1659. On the other hand, while the battles were still happening, in 1640, Portugal had rebelled under the leadership of John IV of Portugal who pretended to be the owner of the Portuguese throne. During his rebellious activities, he had gained serious amounts of support from the Portuguese People. As Spain was dealing with other Rebellions elsewhere, along with the war against France, Spain was unable to send any notorious personnel to deal with the Portuguese Rebellions. At the same time, as Portugal was not strong enough to commence further attacks on Spanish Territory, Portugal and Spain entered a de facto state of peace between the years of 1644 to 1657. After the death of John IV in 1657, the Spanish commenced an attack on Portugal however they were defeated at Ameixial in 1663 and Monte Carlos in 1665 which resulted in Spain recognizing Portugal as an Independent State in the year of 1668. During the war of the Devolution, Charles II and his regency were incompetent in dealing with the war that Louis XIV of France commenced a series of attacks on the Spanish Netherlands between the years of 1667 and 1668. As a result of these attacks, the Spanish Netherlands used many strategically important locations including the cities of Lillie and Charleroi. During the Nine Years’ War, French forces led by the Duke of Luxembourg invaded the Spanish Netherlands once again by the order of Louis XIV of France and defeated the Spanish army at the city of Fleurus in 1690. At the same time, the French forces managed to defeat the Dutch forces commanded by William III who were fighting next to the Spanish Forces in the battle. At the end of the war, French armies took control over most of the Spanish Netherlands including the important cities of Ghent and Luxembourg. As a result of these Spanish defeats, it was revealed to the world how vulnerable and backward the Spanish defenses and bureaucracy were, however, after these claims, the Spanish Government took no actions to improve them. During the final decades of the 17th Century, Spain saw utter decay and stagnation while the rest of Europe went through positive exciting changes in governments and societies while Spain remained constant. The previously established Spanish Bureaucracy needed a Charismatic, Industrious, and intelligent leader like Charles I and Philip II to commence. However, as Philip III and IV were not completing these requirements, they led to Spain’s decay. Charles II was retarded and impotent, dying without an heir and leading to the war of succession. As his final wish, the childless king of Spain desired that the throne pass to the Bourbon prince Philip of Anjou, rather than to a member of the family that had tormented him throughout his life.
During the 16th and 17th Centuries, The Spanish Empire was ruled by the major branch of the Habsburg dynasty. During this period, the Spanish covered the entire peninsula, politically with a confederacy of several independent kingdoms merged into a union. The kingdoms included: Aragon, Castile, Leon, Navarre, and Portugal after the year of 1580. In those days, the term “Monarchia Catholica” also known as Catholic Monarchy was still being used for the Monarchy under the Spanish Habsburgs control. However, it can be stated that the unified version of Spain became a reality after the death of the last ruler of the Spanish Habsburgs, Charles II in the year of 1700. Under the rule of Habsburgs, Spain became the most powerful state within Europe both politically and militarily. However, after the second half of the 17th Century, this mightynest of the Spanish Empire started to decline due to failed orders and commands made by the High Command of the Spanish Habsburgs. It must be noted that the age known for the improvements in art, architecture and Spanish Literature, the Golden Age of Spain, also took place during the Habsburg command.
In the year of 1516, when Spain’s first Habsburg Ruler, Charles I came to the throne as the king of Spanish Habsburgs, Spain became the central to the dynastic struggles of Europe. At the same time, after becoming the King of Spain, Charles I also became Charles V as the Holy Roman Emperor. When he was coming to the end of his life, he arrived at the decision of dividing the Habsburg inheritance into two different groups. On the one hand the control was Spain, North Africa, the Americas, and the Netherlands. However, on the other hand it was the Holy Roman Empire. This decision of Charles V created his Son’s, Philip II, a major difficulty. During Charles’s reign, Aztec and Inca Empires in the Americas were conquered from 1519 to 1521 and 1540 to 1558. At the same time, Spanish Settlements were established in the Americas, the most notorious settlement which was being used as the main settlement in the Americas was Mexico City which was established in the year of 1524 which was also being used for further Colonization Management of the Americas. In the 16th Century, more colonization efforts were made by the colonization of Florida in the 1560s, colonization of Buenos Aires in the year of 1536 and colonization of New Granada, which is the modern Colombia, in the 1530s. As a result of these colonization progresses in the Americas, Spanish in Europe gained a great source for their wealth and power. However, as precious metal sources were on an increase in Europe, the general inflation within Europe increased. To fight this, Spain used the American Silver that was being brought from the Americas to Spain to fight back the inflation which was affecting their side while worsening the inflation levels in other opposing states.
After the death of Charles I in the year of 1556, Philip II became the King of Spanish Habsburgs. During his reign of the Spanish Habsburgs, a series of state bankruptcies occurred due to the declaration of independence which created the Dutch Republic in the year of 1581. As a Catholic supporter, Phillip established a massive naval attack by the usage of his Spanish Armada to attack the protestants in England in 1588 which was unsuccessful due to a few issues such as weather and logistical issues. However, even though the battle was lost, due to the increasing inflation of the American brough Silver and the reputation of the Spanish Army, the damaged armada was repaired and improved in a short time period. These improvements to the Naval department of the Spanish Army made the Spanish Habsburg Empire the leading power of Europe which made its citizens become aware of a novel situation within Europe. With the addition of the Portuguese territory and resources to the Spanish Jurisdiction in the year of 1580 with the Iberian Union, Spanish crown got even stronger in Europe.
In the year of 1492, with the end of the Reconquista period and the publication of Antonio de Nebrija’s Grammar of The Castilian Language, a period known for flourishing arts, developed literature and political rise of the Spanish Habsburgs also known as The Spanish Golden Age (Siglo de Oro) have started. During this period, by the usage of the relationships made by Queen Isabella’s husband, and later Spain’s sole monarch, Ferdinand I of Aragon, established a passage route across the Mediterranean between Valencia, Seville, and florence. At the same time, Luis de Morales, one of the key individuals of Spanish mannerist painting, continued his art by retaining a distinctly Spanish Style in his artworks. Spanish art during this period, particularly that of Luis de Morales, held a strong mark of mysticism and religion that was encouraged by the counter-reformation and the patronage of Spain’s strongly Catholic monarchs and aristocracy. The importance of Spanish rule in the City of Naples was notorious between the Spanish Golden Age as a series of artwork pieces from the Italian soil was being sent to Spanish Soil by the usage of administrators from both sides. These agreements assisted in improving the already made connections between the Spanish and Italian during this period.
At the present period of time, Spanish poetry, prose and Drama was greatly flourishing. Regarded by many as one of the finest literary works in any language, Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes was the first novel published in the Continent of Europe. It gave Cervantes a stature in the Spanish-speaking world comparable to his contemporary William Shakespeare in England. Don Quixote resembled both the medieval chivalric romances of an earlier time and the novels of the early modern world. It has endured to the present day as a landmark in world literary history, and it was an immediate international hit in its own time. This period has also produced some of the most notorious Spanish works of poetry. After the introduction and influence of Italian Renaissance verse is apparent perhaps most vividly in the works of Garcilaso de la Vega, and illustrate a profound influence on later poets. Mystical literature in Spanish reached its summit with the works of San Juan de la Cruz and Teresa of Avila. Baroque poetry was dominated by the contrasting styles of Francisco de Quevedo and Luis de Gongora; both had a lasting influence on subsequent writers, and even on the Spanish language itself.
During this period, Spanish medical practice relied on herbal remedies to cure many illnesses. As a result, the Spanish eagerly expected new plants to be transported from the Americas to be used in the medical sector. The Spanish viewed the American plans as “inferior Native” to justify imperialism. As an example, they recognized tomato as a poisonous plant type since it belonged to the nightshade family of plants. However, while some plants were being seen as cursed or poisonous, plants like tobacco and cacao were seen as luxury goods in the continent of Europe. Contact with new species of plants caused Europeans to re-examine their understanding of plant life and expand upon previous scientific classifications. Many native plants of the Americas, such as the Willow tree, took place as a key component of modern medicine.
However, this period not only assisted Spanish on advancing in Art, Literature and Music, but it also assisted with political adjustments. The Monarchy played an integral role in Spain’s global expansion and influence. As the Habsburg successors to King Fernando and Queen Isabel, King Charles V and his son, King Phillip II, continued the legacy of their predecessors through exhibitions of the country’s power and imperial might. Within the Spanish territories themselves, the king established a strict hierarchy of nobility and wealth, with power embodied by the monarch. This power structure set the standard for how Spain presented itself to other nations. In the Americas, specifically New Spain, Spain strove to create a quasi-Spanish society. Imposing a strict hierarchy via appointed officials and thousands of laws, the Crown continued its tight control and limited the holdings of individual wealth. In Europe, Spain practices a more diplomatic imperialism, placing Spaniards in key governmental positions and leaving pre-existing government structure intact.
At the same time, the Golden Age was a time of great change for both inside and outside the Catholic Church. A Dominican individual from the city of Seville, known as Alonso de Hojeda, managed to convince Queen Isabella that crypto-judaism existed among Andalusian conversos during her stay in the city of Seville during the years of 1477-1478. By the request of the monarchs by Pedro González de Mendoza, archbishop of the City of Seville, a report was established. In the established report, the monarchs have decided to introduce the inquisition to uncover and do away with false converts, and requested the Pope’s assent. On the day of November 1st, 1478, Pope Sixtus IV promulgated the bull “Exigit Sinceras Devotionis Affectus”, establishing the inquisition in the Kingdom of Castile. The bull gave exclusive authority to the monarchs to name the inquisitors. However, the first two Inquisitors, Miguel de Morillo and Juan de San Martin, were not named until the day of September 27th, 1480 in Medina del Campo. At the beginning, only the dioceses of Seville and Cordoba were authorized in the activities of the inquisition. One year later, the first “Auto de Fe” was celebrated in the city of Seville on the date of February 6, 1481 when 6 people were burned alive for celebrations by the inquisition. Following the celebrations, the inquisition grew rapidly. By the year of 1492, a series of tribunals existed in Castilian cities of Avila, Cordoba, Jaen, Medina del Campo, Segovia, Sigüenza, Toledo, and Valladolid. However, while establishing the new inquisition to the Kingdom of Castile was easy both socially and politically, establishing it to the Kingdom of Aragon was much more difficult as Ferdinand did not resort to new appointments; he resuscitated the old Pontifical Inquisition, submitting it to his direct control. The population of Aragon was massly opposed to the inquisition. In addition, the major differences between Ferdinand and Sixtus IV prompted the latter to promulgate a new bull categorically prohibiting the inquisition’s extension to Aragon. In this bull, the Pope unambiguously criticized the procedures of the inquisitorial court, affirming that,
“…many true and faithful Christians, because of the testimony of enemies, rivals, slaves and other low people, and still less appropriate, without tests of any kind, have been locked up in secular prisons, tortured and condemned like relapsed heretics, deprived of their goods and properties, and given over to the secular arm to be executed, at great danger to their souls, giving a pernicious example and causing scandal to many.”
The pressure by Ferdinand caused the Pope to suspend this bull. In October 17th, 1483, he suggested another bull, naming “Tomas de Torquemada” inquisidor General of Aragon, Valencia and Catalonia. This bull made the inquisition the only institution with authority throughout all the kingdoms of the Spanish Monarchy ,and at the same time a useful mechanism at the service of the crown. However, the cities of Aragon continued on resisting the inquisitions that were suggested by the Pope, and even saw periods of revolts like in Teruel from 1484 to 1485. On September 15, 1485, the Inquisidor Pedro Arbues was murdered in the city of Zaragoza which resulted in public opinion to turn against the conversos in favor of the inquisition. In Aragon, the inquisitorial courts focused specifically on members of the powerful converso minority, ending their influence in the Aragonese administration. Between the years of 1480 and 1530, the inquisition saw a period of intense activity, The Exact number of trials and executions debated. Henry Kamen suggests an approximate number of 2000 executed, based on the documentation of the Autos de Fe. The Majority of Victims were conversos of Jewish Origin.
Jews who continued practicing their religion were not persecuted by the Holy Office, but it was suspicious of them due to the thought that they urged conversos to practice their former faith. However, two jews and six conversos were condemned to be burned for practising a supposedly blasphemous ritual in the Trial at Santo Nino de la Guardia in 1491. On March 31, 1492, precisely 3 months after the reconquest was concluded with the fall of Granada, Ferdinand and Isabella promulgated a decree ordering the expulsion of Jews from all their Kingdoms. A choice was given to the Jewish Subjects until July 31, 1492 whether they accept baptism or leave the country. While they were allowed to take their personal belongings with them, land-holdings were forced to be sold; gold, silver, and coined money were forfeit as well. The reason given for these measurements was to serve as a reminder to the jewish individuals to not forget their former faith and seduced many conversos into relapsing and returning to the practice of judaism. As this measurement was affecting many jewish individuals economically and socially, a jewish delegation was sent to the city of Isaac Abravanel to offer a large sum in compensation to the Monarchs to terminate the measures that were established towards the jewish individuals. However, this offer is believed to be rejected by the Inquisitor General which it was introduced to. It is believed that the Inquisitor General burst into the meeting room throwing 30 pieces of Silver to the main table asking what would be the price to sell Jesus to the Jews in a sarcastic tone. While the total number of jews that fled Spanish territories are still unknown to this date, Historians like Juan de Mariana and Isaac Abravanel express that the numbers are between 300,000 and 800,000. The jewish individuals mostly fled to Portugal and Morocco. Later On, descendants of Spanish Jewish established a series of social communities in many cities of Europe, North Africa and mainly in the Ottoman Empire.
However, while many jewish individuals fled from Spanish territory, a part of the jewish individuals chose to stay in Kingdoms of Spain. As a result of their choice, they were baptized, and so continuing to practice Judaism put them at risk of being denounced. During this period, it is believed that in 3 months, close 40,000 individuals were baptized. While these time periods did not include any intense actions against the inquisition, between the years of 1530 and 1590, the percentage of conversos among the inquisition trials lowered significantly, down to 3 percent of the total. During this period, a group of crypto-Jews was discovered in Quintanar de la Orden in 1588 which resulted in rebirth of the prosecution’s towards the Jewish individuals. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, some conversos who fled to Portugal started returning back to Spain due to the Portuguese Inquisitions that were founded in 1532. This translated into rapid increase in the trials of crypto-Jews, among them a number of important financiers. In the year of 1516, Conversos saw Charles I, the new king of Spain, as a possible end to the Inquisitions, or atleast a reduction of its influence. However, the reality shocked Jewish Individuals as he kept the previously established Inquisitions intack. During the sixteenth century period, Protestant reformers bore the brunt of the Inquisitions. It was seen that a large percentage of Protestants during these acts were of Jewish Origin. During these acts, the first main targets were members of a group known as the “alumbrados” of Guadalajara and Valladolid. While the acts contained a series of trials, they usually ended with prison sentences of different lengths ranging to life-long lengths while no executions took place. While these acts were in action, a series of rumors were picked up of intellectuals and clerics who were interested in the Erasmian Ideas, who had allegedly strayed from Orthodoxy.
Between the years of 1558 and 1562, at the beginning of the reign of Philip II, the first trials took place against two communities of Reformation influenced Protestants from the cities of Valladolid and Sevilleas. These trials signalled a series of future advancements to the Inquisition activities. During these trials, a number of enormous Autos de Fe were held. While the trials were conducted by the authority of the members of the Royal Family, approximately one hundred people were executed after the trials were concluded. After 1562, the trials continued with reduced repression. Historical files state that only a dozen Spaniards were burned alive for Lutheranism through the Sixteenth Century period. The Inquisitorial Process consisted of a series of hearings, in which both the denouncers and the defendant gave testimony. A defense counsel was assigned to the defendant, a member of the tribunal itself, whose role was simply to advise the defendant and to encourage him or her to speak the truth. The prosecution was directed by the fiscal. Interrogation was done in the presence of the Notary of the Secreto, who meticulously wrote down the words of the accused. To defend himself, the accused had two possibilities: abonos (to find favorable witnesses) or tachas (to demonstrate that the witnesses of accusers were not trustworthy. To interrogate the criminals, the inquisition used torture, but not in a systematic way. It was applied mainly against those suspected of Judaism and Protestantism, beginning in the sixteenth century. In other periods, the proportions varied remarkably. Torture was always a means to obtain the confession of the accused, not a punishment itself. It was applied without distinction of sex or age, including children and the aged. The methods of torture most used by the Inquisition were garrucha, toca, and the potro. The application of the garrucha, also known as the strappado, consisted of suspending the criminal from the ceiling by a pulley with weights tied to the ankles, with a series of lifts and drops, during which arms and legs suffered violent pulls and were sometimes dislocated. The toca, also called tortura del agua, consisted of introducing a cloth into the mouth of the victim, and forcing them to ingest water spilled from a jar so that they had the impression of drowning. The potro, the rack, was the instrument of torture used most frequently. The assertion that “confessionem esse veram, non factam vi tormentorum” (the confession was true and free) sometimes follows a description of how, presently after torture ended, the subject freely confessed to his offenses.
Some of the torture methods attributed to the Spanish Inquisition were not used. For example, the “Iron Maiden” never existed in Spain, and was a post-Reformation invention of Germany. Thumbscrews on display in an English museum as Spanish were recently argued to be of English origin. The “Spanish Chair,” a device used to hold the victim while the soles of their feet were roasted, did exist in Spain during the period of the Inquisition but it is uncertain whether it was actually used. Once the process concluded, the inquisidores met with a representative of the bishop and with the consultores, experts in theology or canon law, which was called the consulta de fe. The case was voted and the sentence pronounced, which had to be unanimous. In case of discrepancies, the Suprema had to be informed
As previously stated in this Study Guide, the Spanish Inquisition acted actively to prevent heretical ideas from spreading to mass populations within Spanish jurisdiction by the production of “Indexes” of prohibited books. The very first index published in Spain in 1551 was a reprinting of the Index published by the University of Louvain in 1550, with an adjustment of being dedicated to Spanish texts. However, these dedications were mostly focused on religious works, and particularly vernacular translations of the Bible. As these Indexes were being published, Spain was in a period called the Golden Age of Spain. As a result, these published indexes contained great works of Spanish Literature. At the same time, many religious individuals known as Saints by the Catholic Church also added their works in the published indexes. At the very first, the inclusion in the index meant total prohibition. However, this proved to be impractical and hard to conduct, but also important to the goals of having a literate and well educated new generation. The activities of the Inquisition did not impede the flowering of Spanish Literature “Siglo de Oro” although almost all of its major authors crossed paths with the Hold Office from time to time.
During the Golden Age of Spain, Spanish territories were in the command of influential and powerful individuals known as Validos. During this period, Validos, also known as Favorites, were key individuals on the Spanish Command who were selected by the King. As these individuals were highly trusted by the King, they were granted control over governmental tasks which allowed them to make critical decisions within Spanish Jurisdiction and outside. At the same time, Favorites also held important Court titles including:
These titles assisted the Validos in allowing them to accompany the king closely and exert considerable influence over royal decisions. It must also be stated that the Valido system acted as an early stage centralized governmental control system between the king and the other political entities such as councils and nobility.
During the early years of the Golden Age of Spain, 3 families were established for the Valido system by the names of:
All three validos belonged to larger dynastic lineages, or casas; the House of Guzmán, in example, had several branches and Medina Sidonia, one of Spain’s oldest and most opulent dukedoms (1445). However, because that dukedom has a distinct history, it has persisted in a different family line into the contemporary period.
The System of Counsels was an administrative system which was based on the Spanish monarchy and which consisted of various councils, also known as “Consejos”, which were involved in the advising of the king and the administration of the government. Each council was assigned an area of jurisdiction, by jurisdiction, or by subject matter. While there were many councils within Spanish Jurisdiction during the War of the Spanish Succession, the most notorious and important councils included:
Aragon
However, after the war, their power was diminished due to the Nueva Planta decree which centralized governance under the Bourbon Monarchy.
The Councils System functioned throughout the war, but after Philip V’s victory, it was significantly weakened. The Bourbon monarch introduced centralization reforms, replacing many councils with French-style secretariats which were also known as “Secretarías del Despacho”.
Carlos (Charles) II of Spain, also known as Charles the Bewitched, was the king of Spain from 1665 to 1700. Born on November 6, 1661, the young king was crowned at 4 years of age. His title, “Bewitched”, was due to the king’s ailing state throughout his reign. The first 10 years of the reign of Carlos II was under the regentship of his mother, the Queen Regent Mariana of Austria.
The regency of Mariana was long secured and prepared by the former king Philip IV through an inclusive testimony, intending to prevent the foreseen opposition against the rule of a woman. The Spanish Empire was exhausted from the Franco-Spanish War (1635-1659) and according to the reports of the Spanish Military, the empire only held approximately 10.000 troops upon the beginning of Mariana’s reign.
Spain was already embroiled in a war with Portugal when Mariana’s regency began. The war, known as the Portuguese Restoration War or the Acclamation War, had begun due to the Portuguese Revolution of 1640. Mariana took over the empire nearing the end of the war and the nation had gone unstable due to the constant skirmishes between Portugal and Spain. After endless years of war, the Spanish Army had grown weak and with the support of the king of France, Louis XIII, —although supporting the enemy of Spain was a clear violation of the peace treaty between France and Spain, the Treaty of Pyrenees— the Spanish Empire could not prevail in the struggle against Portugal. The war was being lost, thus Mariana saw no purpose to continue exhausting the critical state of the military and negotiations were planned.
Mariana was an ambitious woman with dreams of reforming the Spanish Empire. There were many concerns of the empire she wanted to resolve, yet the Queen Regent had to secure her own administration first. According to the testimony of Philip IV, a de facto council called the Junta de Gobierno was established with the regency of Mariana and was the consultative body of the empire during the period. It was the name for the military junta within the administration of the Spanish Empire and it quickly became a scene of immense power struggles. To assure her regency, the queen sought the trust of the members of the Junta de Gobierno. Authority within the junta was not, however, obtained with positions but mostly with renown. The elders of the junta were the most experienced, thus the most prominent. Mariana managed to gain the trust and support of a decent part of the military junta and her intentions for the Junta de Gobierno was to either turn its course in favor of her administration, or dismiss it. An opportunity to install her authority over the junta unfolded not long after the start of her regency. The archbishop of the council passed away hours from Philip IV and the office of inquisitor was left vacant. Mariana considered her confessor, Father Everard Nithard, fit for the position, for she desired the presence of loyal members within the administration. To eliminate possible opposition towards her regime, Mariana first appointed Nithard within the Council of State as the tradition followed — The confessors of kings and queens have mostly been appointed at the Council of State. Father Nithard, however, did not preserve the right to be a member of administration, for he was not a citizen of Spain. Juan Everardo Nithard was an Austrian priest of the Society of Jesus and was the confessor of the regent, knowing Mariana since her childhood. However, Mariana was determined to settle her authority and she allowed the membership of her confessor by granting him citizenship through a papal decree, thus appointing him the inquisitor general. Both Nithard and Mariana herself were aware of the political challenge posed by the unstable progression of the junta. Many sought the dissolution whilst many more supported it and desired to be a member. The queen had not yet accomplished her plans with the junta as the appointment of Nithard was not an indication of the regent’s authority, rather was an act of requirement, for the position was empty. Many proposals were presented to the regent regarding her obligation to dissolve the Junta de Gobierno, but Mariana was a woman of strategy and knew the possible consequences of challenging the testimony of Philip IV — considering that it was solely the testimony that legitimized her rulership without a king. The wise choice Mariana preferred was to gradually eliminate the authority and significance of the Junta de Gobierno. Presumably, Philip IV had ordered the establishment of the Junta de Gobierno according to the Habsburg traditions — Many Habsburg rulers had established various de facto consultative bodies upon their monarchs. There are no records as to the reasoning behind the establishment of the junta, yet it is believed to be with the king’s intentions of preventing the rise of a new valido that could surpass Mariana. The King desired Mariana to be under no influence from any members of the court and decided to establish a greater council including those eligible to counsel the queen. Additionally, Philip IV desired the presence of a consultative body with greater powers, not to threaten the executive power of Mariana but to assure the integrity of the state rulerships of Spain by creating a framework of communication with the crown. Contrary to the king’s intentions, the establishment of the de facto consultative body fostered the perception that Philip IV lacked trust in Mariana’s governance. The original consultative organ of the crown was the Council of State and with the new de facto body, the power of the Council of State was diminished. Mariana was aware of the great challenges her reign would face in case the Junta de Gobierno maintained its power, for it was represented as a sign of weakness for the queen and many within the council were doubtful of her authority. The regent sought to rebuild the power of the original consultative body instead. She gradually altered the Council of State to become her instrument in administration. Many members who had proved their loyalty were appointed by the order of the queen. Furthermore, the queen stated her desire for the consultations of the Council of State, which would normally be presented to the Junta de Gobierno, to be provided directly to herself. Slowly but effectively, Mariana was shifting the power away from the testimonial junta.
During the latest years of Spain, the empire lacked allies to support its cause and was constantly under the pressure of Louis XIV, the French king. Therefore, it was seen as a way of settling peace between empires to wed the daughter of Philip IV from Elisabeth of France, Maria Theresa, to the French King, Louis XIV. The marriage was hoped to relieve the lasting disputes amongst the two major powers of Europe, yet it unfolded to escalate another political crisis. Upon the rumors of the critical medical situation of Philip IV spreading across Europe, the French king sought to occupy the territories of Spain, primarily the Spanish Netherlands, with help from Leopold I after the death of the Spanish king. Leopold I, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, had agreed to the invasion plans and added his own claims on the partition of Spain, thus proving the escalation of a new war between the powers inevitable. Louis XIV of France, having married Maria Theresa, proclaimed his ownership of the Spanish Netherlands by right of marriage. The failure of Spain in settling peace with France embroiled Mariana into another war, later named the War of Devolution — The name derives from the claims of Louis XIV that the Spanish Netherlands had devolved to him by right of marriage. Peace was first brought between Portugal and Spain with the Treaty of Lisbon in 1668, as a result of which Spain recognized the regime of the royal Portuguese dynasty and with that, Portugal’s independence. The Spanish military had recovered its strength with the military policies of the regent, yet no significant progress was made and Mariana sought no wars to continue, for the nation was growing unstable and weak. The continuous wars had troubled both France and Spain, but Louis XIV was persistent in his campaign on Spanish territories. In return for the aggressive approach of France, Spain negotiated with the United Kingdom, the United Provinces and the Kingdom of Sweden to cease the frightening growth of the French Empire. Later, a coalition was formed to mediate peace between the parties of the war. Spain and France were both convinced to accept the terms proposed by the coalition and after the war, the French Empire assumed control over a considerable part of the Spanish Netherlands. The war was lost and Spain had lost a significant amount of its strength with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, but finally, there came peace. Following the end of the Devolution War, Spain managed to gather allies against its rival, France, for the aggressive campaign of Louis XIV gradually became a threat for the entirety of Europe. Overall, Spain was relieved thanks to what Mariana had always prioritized, diplomacy; or considering the impending events, it was thought to be for a short while.
When peace was settled with Spain’s enemies, Mariana sought to utilize the military expertise of the illegitimate son of her husband, Don Juan José. Don Juan was a man of experience and was trained for governance and military leadership throughout the reign of his father, Philip IV. He was the only illegitimate son of Philip IV who was promising enough to be recognized and trained by the king. During the final years of Philip, Don Juan aggressively proclaimed his succession and disturbed the king, losing his position as a favourite. At first, the illegitimate son was appointed to the Council of State and he managed to become an outstanding member of the consultative organ during the troubled times of the empire. Mariana trusted him and he reportedly has pledged his loyalty to the queen regent many times during his position in the council. Thus, witnessing Juan’s talent in administration, Mariana sought to secure the threatened Spanish territories up north, offering to appoint him the governor of Spanish Netherlands after the peace with France. The illegitimate son accepted the offer of the regent, but refused to move to Brussels and often delayed his departure. He wished to remain in Madrid and be a part of the administration of the empire. Originally, before the appointment of Don Juan as a governor, his relations with the reign of Mariana were considered to be intimate, yet Mariana was not to tolerate such disobedience. Upon his persistence to remain within Madrid, many ministers and members of the Junta de Gobierno warned him to honor the decision of the regent, but Don Juan, with reasons assumed to be his desire to rise within the administration, continuously attended the Council of State meetings in Madrid, also requesting more men and money gradually. His excuses to delay the departure eventually broke the trust of Mariana and commenced the staged rivalry between the two prominent figures. At this point, it is crucial to understand the reasons for Mariana’s appointment and for Don Juan’s delay in departure. Don Juan José was an ambitious man and his claim on the throne, considering his persistence to remain in the centre of administration, together with his renowned position in the army, was but a threat to the regent and her son, Carlos II. Mariana was already in search of ways to prevent Don Juan from spreading influence across Spain as the regency was already facing the harsh circumstances of lasting wars and political chaos. According to the testimony of Philip IV, Don Juan was prohibited to join the councils of administration and consultation as the king did not want his illegitimate son to surpass the regent. Mariana had chosen to appoint Don Juan regardless of the prohibition and it can be said that the regent had shaped the fate of her stepson to gradually become her rival. Now wary of the danger, Mariana sought to rid Don Juan. The best way to achieve the regent’s intentions was determined to be driving Don Juan away from the mainland, to the Spanish Netherlands, where the crown would benefit from his military expertise and would avoid his constant pressure. Whereas for Don Juan himself, he sought to remain within Spain to fight against the regency and capture what he had believed to be rightfully his, the throne. Don Juan also saw the reign of the regent insufficient and sought to rid her favourites from administration, believing that the queen remained under intolerable influence from them. On June 2, 1668, an Aragonese tax-collector named Joseph Mallas was apprehended and executed in Madrid. Mallas was allegedly sent with the orders of Don Juan to assassinate the confessor of Mariana, Father Nithard. Prior to the assassination attempt, Don Juan had again refused to depart to Brussels and continue governorship of the Spanish Netherlands and despite no actions of hostility unfolding between the rivals during the phase, the refusal had triggered the dispute long before. The assassination attempt escalated a furious political chaos within Spain, confronting Don Juan and Mariana’s reign even further. The event unleashed the long rivalry between the former king’s illegitimate son and Mariana even though the assassinstion was planned on the regent’s confessor. Many consultative organs including the Junta de Gobierno released public censures against the actions of Don Juan but Mariana was in no position to apprehend or even prosecute Don Juan in any way for the illegitimate child had gained support and respect of the Spanish Army. Therefore, the incident was but a minor failure for Don Juan and scarcely affected his position within the military. Fueled by Don Juan’s refusal to depart to Brussels, Mariana dismissed Don Juan and appointed another governor to the Spanish Netherlands. The dismissal was without an official ceremony and the decision was abrupt. Although Don Juan apologised and stated other excuses for his delay, Mariana had made up her mind, thus Don Juan lost the governorship of the Spanish Netherlands. Nearly a year after the Mallas Incident, in the winter of 1668-1669, Mariana was informed that Don Juan was approaching Madrid with a squadron of infantry. Her ministers urged the regent to dismiss her valido, Father Nithard. Although Mariana was not eager to accept the terms of Don Juan and dismiss her confessor, the decision was one between her reign and her confessor, the choice of which was unfortunately obvious. Nithard tried to gather support within the Junta de Gobierno and the Council of State yet no members were willing to sacrifice their positions for such a controversial valido.
It is a matter of discussion if Nithard was heavily influential over Mariana’s administration or not as many sources report Nithard’s insufficiency in acting as a valido. Rather, it can be said that Nithard was a loyal figure whom Mariana chose to keep by her side. Whilst many records reflect Nithard’s position to be overly influential and authorized, the inefficiency of the regent’s confessor to fulfill the duties of a favourite of the queen — which would be to determine foreign and domestic policies — and his failure to gather support against the efforts of Don Juan of driving him from administration proves otherwise for a man commonly told to be such prominent. The period of Mariana’s reign is learned mostly through the memorials of her favourites and Nithard is known to have written the most inclusive reports and memorials. According to the Habsburg traditions, however, the queen and overall, women in administration would not be much included within the recorded political matters, rather would be portrayed to be scarcely concerned of such aspects. Yet, we know that Mariana was not a queen to be unconcerned of her empire’s matters. In conclusion, the general assumption that Nithard was dominant in Mariana’s reign does not seem realistic.
The first major setback in Mariana’s plans was with Don Juan marching to Madrid. Nithard was dismissed and the submission was deemed as a weakness for the regent’s reign. Nithard was discharged of all duties and was appointed ambassador to Vienna or Rome, the choice of which was left to the confessor himself as Mariana still respected Nithard and was reluctant to dismiss him. The forced “retirement” of Nithard from the office of inquisitor and his appointment as ambassador were indeed charges of exile; though Mariana desired her confessor to maintain his dignity, at least to a certain level, hence did not officially exile him. Don Juan was only then satisfied enough to cease his march to Madrid. Having forced the submission of the queen, Don Juan presented further demands to Mariana, which included the establishment of a committee to determine fiscal and social policies. Therefore, despite the major damage to Mariana’s authority, the crisis which might as well be classified as a coup d’etat was averted. Thereafter, although the administration of Mariana returned to its regular order with Nithard’s unofficial exile, the question of Don Juan’s position remained unanswered. It was crucial for the regent to maintain the satisfaction of Don Juan until her authority grew to be capable of challenging the military support of the illegitimate son. During the plot against Mariana, Louis XIV had proposed to dispatch officers to the command of Don Juan, yet he had refused the proposal for it would become treason and Don Juan was no man to accept treason against his own nation. Despite the refusal, even the occurrence of such proposals demonstrated the possible foreign aid Don Juan’s plots would gather. Under such circumstances, Mariana appointed her illegitimate stepson as the captain general of the kingdom of Aragon. The position was dangerous but acceptable and foremost, was a way to drive Don Juan away from Madrid. Later, a committee to determine social and fiscal reforms as in the demands of Don Juan was established, named the Junta de Alivios. The president of the committee was chosen to be the minister who had issued the order for the execution of Malladas, Diego Sarmiento de Valladares, surely as a provocation for Don Juan. The committee proved to be insufficient and was dissolved 6 months after its establishment.
Forcefully fulfilling the demands of her stepson, Mariana began to prepare for her campaign against him. Don Juan was a prominent figure in the Spanish Army and Mariana was proved to be vulnerable against the compulsion of armed forces. Therefore, Mariana sought to create an obedient military corps which would provide the protection her reign lacked. Her plan was to create a regiment of infantry who would be under her personal command. Upon the queen’s orders, rumors circulated throughout the court and the streets of Madrid. Both the common folk and the nobility objected to the plan of establishing an armed force in Madrid. Arguably, it was deemed that the presence of troops in the capital would escalate unnecessary concern amongst the public and would negatively affect the regular course of daily life in Madrid. Many tried to dissuade Mariana, yet the queen was determined to ensure her safety. A regiment was formed with loyal forces and stationed in Madrid. The regiment was originally the queen’s instrument against Don Juan, but after the great opposition the forces faced, came the need for a proper reasoning for their presence. It was considered to be risky to publicly proclaim the establishment of a royal force to fight Don Juan, for it would imply the crown’s weakness. Rather, Mariana utilized the position of the Bewitched King for her justification. The official establishment of the royal guard was with a ceremony in which Carlos II personally inspected the regiment and accepted their loyalty. Thus, the royal guard was established as a warden to the troubled king. As of then, Mariana had the power to resist Don Juan’s mandate with the royal guards. On July 19, 1669, the regiment was spotted guarding the gates of the royal palace for the first time. The progression of the regent’s administration had returned to its regular and stable flow. Reforms and overall, the governance of Spain was initiated swiftly during the second half of 1669.
In Spring of 1670, a key figure of Mariana’s reign passed away at fifty-five years of age. Marquis of Aytona was one of the few to support Mariana since the beginning of her reign and was the most-trusted advisor of the regent until his death. Marquis of Aytona, his original name being Luis de Cerda y de la Vega, was the prominent politician who helped Mariana’s reign to grow and stabilize. He was active in every aspect of administration from engineering to military strategies and Mariana had trusted his consultation during his term. He was influential in the establishment of the royal guard and was the coronel of the regiment. Most of the masculine roles within the royal households were held by Aytona, along with many in administration thereof. Reportedly, Mariana relied on his counsel in matters of politics, finance, military and many more aspects. Aytona was still prominent during the term of Nithard in office, indeed is reported to have accomplished much more than Nithard who was considered to be the valido of Mariana, proving yet again the asserted influence of Nithard on Mariana wrong. The great position of Aytona besides the queen brought renown and with it, even more opposition to him. Many were disturbed by his outstanding role in Spain and rivalry soon arose within the Junta de Gobierno. The opposition grew strong enough to force Aytona to take action. He asked the queen to write a declaration that states his duties to be with no salary in return. The foreseen crisis was averted, however, with the death of Marquis of Aytona on March 17, 1670. With his death, many significant positions in administration were left vacant, but Mariana had decent men she could trust in the Council of State, for it included mostly loyal politicians appointed by the regent herself. Instead of searching for a single loyal figure to fill the vacant positions, Mariana chose to distribute the roles Aytona occupied amongst trusted members of the Council of State. After all, the regent had proved her wisdom in politics and the reign was with no domestic obstacles, at least for a while.
After the immense disputes and the opposition to Mariana’s rule were dealt with, the agenda was finally shifted to international matters. Despite the successful negotiations with France, Louis XIV still posed the greatest threat to the Spanish Empire. The Spanish Army had recovered during the periods of peace, yet remained fewer in numbers compared to that of France. The rumors of war started spreading more day by day after the Triple Alliance was dissolved in 1672. Charles II, king of Great Britain, had agreed to wage war against the United Provinces with France, officially ending the Triple Alliance of the United Provinces, the Kingdom of Sweden and Great Britain. Mariana was again with no safeguard against the possible attack of Louis XIV. Although now with Spain relieved of domestic disputes, Mariana was able to prove her wisdom in diplomacy. Threatened by the aggressive campaigns of France, to tackle the frightening rise of the Kingdom of France, the Holy Roman Empire, the Duke of Lorrainne and the United Provinces agreed to ally Spain, originating the Quadruple Alliance in August, 1673. It is also important to note that prior to the formation of the Quadruple Alliance, the secret partition treaty between Louis XIV and Leopold I on Spain was revealed. Mariana of Austria, sister to Leopold I, was heavily troubled by the intrigue of her brother. Regardless, the alliance was formed.
The war with France was inevitable with the persistent attitude of Louis XIV, Mariana knew. The Spanish Army was disorganized and heavily stricken when Mariana took over the administration. Throughout her reign, she prioritized military affairs and was highly involved in the restoration of the Spanish armed forces. The Army of Flanders, the Spanish Army brigade located in the Low Countries, was of around 10.000 soldiers in 1665 when the regency began. Aware of the growing threats, Mariana, with strict financial allocations and loans, managed to expand the numbers of the Army of Flanders up to 63.000 by 1670. Also the frontiers in mainland Spain were reinforced with large garrison units and artillery. Spain, although still not as much compared to what Philip IV held, was once again with significant military capabilities. When the borders were secured, Mariana focused on rather minor concerns of Spain. Pirates disturbing the trade and raiders across rural lands were eliminated, further stabilizing the nation. The peace between Spain and France was hanging by a thread and it seemed so that the sole factor holding Louis XIV from marching to Spain was the Triple Alliance. With the French king persuading Charles II of England to wage war against the United Provinces, in 1672, the Franco-Dutch war started. Mariana initiated the campaign to gather allies against France successfully. By 1973, France was fighting a huge coalition including the Holy Roman Empire, the United Provinces, the Spanish Empire, Brandenburg, Denmark and many more German dutchies. France, unexpectedly, fought well and was able to hold ground and even attack against such a coalition. The Spanish situation was getting more complicated as the war continued, for the king, Carlos II, was becoming of age to assume his crown and Mariana had to work to secure her son’s reign. Also, besides all reparations, the Spanish Army was still not dominant to that of France. The challenging battles had occupied most of the Spanish Army and the economic stability of the empire had collapsed. Mutiny and rebellion was
growing inside Spain as days went by. Mariana was incapable of suppressing rebellions as no military forces were available to be dispatched, thus causing chaos in the nation. Rebellions also in Sicily escalated. The internal crises relapsed with Louis XIV being informed of the rebellions and aiding them. No more were the rebellions matters to ignore and Mariana was obliged to find a proper approach.
As war unfolded, Mariana was once again threatened by Don Juan, for it was now easy to gather support against the Queen Regent and her stepson was one ambitious and vengeful to possibly seek opportunities of assuming power. She had to drive Don Juan away from Madrid until the war was concluded. That was when Mariana made the greatest mistake. Don Juan was appointed vicar-general of the king in Italy to suppress the Messina revolt, which was triggered by the public proclamation of a group of civilians on the insufficiency of the government. Carlos II was to turn fourteen in months and Mariana had to get Don Juan away as soon as possible. The lack of military opportunities would also no longer be concerning if Don Juan was to assume military leadership against the rebellion, considering his expertise in strategy.
The appointment of Don Juan was also another turning point for the future of the Spanish Empire. By then, Carlos II had become old enough to intervene in the administration of his mother’s reign. The king was highly influenced by his teacher and his confessor, as records indicate. It is known that prior to the fourteenth birthday of the king, he had written to the Cardinal of Aragón, expressing his desire to name him his valido. Aragón, in return, expressed his doubts of the king acting independently in confrontation with his mother, the Queen Regent. To prove his authority and determination, Carlos II wrote to Don Juan to abolish his appointment as vicar-general and invited him to his birthday. According to the records, on October 30, 1675, Carlos II wrote to Don Juan: “I need your services to assist me in my duties because I plan to say farewell to my mother.” Whom the king trusted to assume authority did not help the king in his intentions, but turned him against his mother. The rivalry of Carlos II against his mother was not with the provocations of singular figures, rather was a period, though it will not be relevant in understanding the reign of Mariana and will not be included in this writing. Yet, it is crucial to understand the efforts of Carlos II to surpass his mother. Mariana was not aware of the king’s contradicting orders and continued to negotiate with Don Juan on his mission to Messina. The confrontation was to create the events of November 6, which marked the instability of the reign of Carlos II. It is without doubt that Mariana had initiated a greatly successful administration throughout her reign and managed to secure her and her child’s position. The only failure of her’s was soon to be revealed and it was to secure her position in the government of Carlos II.
The fourteenth birthday of the king finally arrived on November 6, 1675. Madrid was flooding with excitement and celebration. But beyond the notice of Mariana and the public, the court was in preparation of a mini-revolution, one to replace Mariana with Don Juan. As planned, Don Juan arrived at the ceremony venue early in the morning. It was foreseen for the queen to take action against Don Juan, but he remained within Madrid. Although it is hard to assume that Don Juan fully trusted Carlos II to confront his mother and replace her, Don Juan still chose to follow the plan as negotiated with the king. Later in the day, shortly before the official beginning of the celebration, the king was summoned to the chambers of Mariana with the request of the queen. Somehow, the queen was informed of Don Juan’s presence. No records are available as to what has happened between mother and son in the chambers, yet Carlos II was spotted in tears and whimpers after leaving the room. Soon after his conversation with his mother, Carlos II issued an order to remove Don Juan from Madrid. No word of what discussions unfolded in the chambers that day has been spoken by neither Mariana nor Carlos II, though it clearly helped Carlos II reconsider his mother’s position in the government. After the crisis of November 6, Mariana was deeply troubled by the plot of his own son whom she had always tried to protect. After the incident, Mariana investigated the plot she deemed “ a coup” and detected those associated with the plan to replace her. Many of the nobles guiding Carlos II were considered guilty and were dismissed by the order of the queen. Meanwhile, the king had now come of age and needed to provide the royal family an heir. His marriage was a matter of discussion throughout Spain, though, upon the proposal of Leopold I, Carlos II was engaged to the Austrian archduchess, Maria Antonia, granddaughter to Mariana. The engagement was hoped to strengthen Spanish ties with the Holy Roman Empire and secure the supportive stance of Leopold I in case of a war with France. The marriage was successful in terms of strengthening the ties of the two empires, but was one with critical challenges. Maria Antonia was 7 years younger than Carlos II and although the age difference was no matter of concern, the youngness of the Austrian archduchess meant that a new heir to the Spanish throne would not be provided for long.
The king was emancipated as of his fourteenth birthday and now was a ruler without the need for a regent. Although there was no need to abide by the counsel of his mother, Carlos II continued to value the authority of Mariana. It was until a year after the king’s emancipation that Mariana remained as the king’s main advisor. A Confederación (A council of twenty-three nobles) was formed to demand the king’s separation from his mother. The king was considered insufficient in governance and many alleged the queen’s influence over Carlos II to be the reason for the king’s lack of authority. Thus, the council of nobles demanded Carlos II to dismiss his mother. According to the records of the Junta de Gobierno, days before Carlos’ birthday, Mariana had proposed to the council the maintenance of her regency for two more years. The proposal was firmly rejected by the king and despite the offer being made, no records indicate that the incident harmed the intimacy between mother and son. Though clearly, the proposal prepared ground for the notion that the queen is overly influencing the king. The king remained persistent to preserve the position of the queen for a long while even after the demands. In early January, 1677, word reached Mariana that Don Juan had gathered a force of 10.000 to march to Madrid. There was yet another coup impending for the government of Mariana and seemingly, Don Juan was able to spread his renown amongst the nobles of Spain, so much that he was seen better for the position than Mariana. With the council of nobles demanding her dismissal and Don Juan setting off to Madrid to enforce the demands, both Mariana and the king were left with no choice. The court was flooded with rumors of a civil war and many of those formerly supporting Mariana, even those deemed most loyal, were now hesitant to insist on the queen’s position. Throughout the years leading to the replacement of Mariana, from 1675 to 1677, The new main advisor was planned to be Don Juan. On January 14, 1677, Carlos II was joined by his soon to be new main advisor in the palace of Buen Retiro. Weeks later, an order to “retire” Mariana was issued by the king himself. It is hard to believe that Carlos II was willing to replace her mother; yet against the threat of a civil war, the king was forced to dismiss Mariana. The new residence of the queen was determined to be in the city of Toledo and thus, Mariana left Madrid. The “retirement” was basically an order of exile for the queen regent, but Carlos II was grateful for his mother, thus presenting the retirement to be self-elected in diplomatic correspondence. Finally, the only authority to possibly restrain the political activity of Don Juan was exiled. The stepson of Mariana was now the main advisor of the king.
Hopes were high for the advisorship of Don Juan throughout Spain. Many celebrated his arrival back at Madrid and the reign of Carlos II was believed to have reached its real emancipation. Eventually, the trust and hope of the Spanish in the new advisor was broken by the actions of Don Juan. The rule many had long sought had proven to be worse than that of the former advisor, Mariana. Don Juan was stubborn in administration and he gradually prepared his own downfall. The new advisor was paranoid from the first day of his entrance into the palace. Considering the rapidly turning tides of the court environment of Spain, Don Juan hardly trusted even those known to have helped prepare his coup. Many nobles or the court were exiled, dismissed, “retired” and replaced by the order of Don Juan. The unjustified actions of the advisor soon brought opposition to his position in the government. Leading the opposition against Don Juan was the exiled queen, Mariana. The roles were switched, Mariana was now the one driven away from Madrid. Throughout the term of the new advisor, the presence of the queen was longed for, as the matters of administration formerly handled by the queen herself were not as swiftly resolved with the new way of the court. Those dismissed by Don Juan created a vacancy in administration and compared to that of a figure well aware of the court’s characteristics, Don Juan’s government was insufficient. Gradually, hopes for the new king’s advisor broke. With the queen seeking vengeance and the court turning against the new advisor, it was now Mariana leading the growing opposition against Don Juan.
We know that Mariana was greatly troubled by the plot his son consented to, though it is clear that Mariana did not accept being separated from her son. Throughout the following years, 1678-1679, mother and son maintained their communication. Countless letters were exchanged between Madrid and Toledo. The frequency and the context of the communication between the queen mother and the king indicates the maintained affection of the figures. According to the records, both Mariana and Carlos II stated their attachments to one another in their letters. The king still remained determined to prevent the excessive influence of his mother, but the love between mother and son had not disappeared. Additionally, with Don Juan and Carlos II remaining distant since the replacement, and the new advisor providing insufficient counsel compared to Mariana, the king grew regretful of his actions against her.
By 1679, the agenda of the court had become the king’s marriage, again. The inability of Maria Antonia in providing an heir to the throne was considered as a great threat for the Spanish Empire. Carlos II brought the matter up to the deliberations of the Council of State and a marriage that would provide the king a son was sought. The candidate for the marriage was proposed to be Marie Louise of Orleans, niece to Louis XIV. Considerably, a marriage between the royal families of France and Spain would be the origin of lasting peace amongst the empires. Marie Louise was a proper candidate, though the king was already engaged with the Austrian archduchess, Maria Antonia. The engagement had to be abolished if a marriage with Marie Louise was considered. Throughout the court, Mariana was seen as the figure that can handle the needed abolishment of the engagement, considering it was his brother and her who had arranged it. The decision was made, Carlos II was to marry Marie Louise. The king wrote to his mother, Mariana, and to the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Leopold I, separately. He was careful in his words and did not want another diplomatic crisis to unfold in his government. Carlos II, in the letter to his mother, wrote wisely. He alleged the ministers of the Council of State in almost forcing him to break the engagement and marry Marie Louise, showing himself victimized to secure the support of his mother. It is not known what Mariana personally thought of the decision, yet she was ready to support her son. After receiving the letter from Carlos II, Leopold I greatly resented. He considered the reasoning of Carlos II in breaking the engagement, which was the age difference, an excuse and complained stating that he had waited for his wife until twenty-six years of age to marry her. Additionally, the preference of a French princess over Maria Antonia was considered to be disrespectful. The emperor’s reaction was foreseen by the Spanish government and it was Mariana whom Carlos II trusted to resolve the possible conflict. Mariana was always ready to help her son and the Spanish Empire. Previously, during the State of Council deliberations when ministers asked if Mariana would help the throne or not, Carlos II responded with confidence that his mother would help him unconditionally. As the king believed, Mariana wrote to Leopold I and was able to relieve the fury of her brother. At this point, Mariana had eventually become a beloved figure in the government of Carlos II and Don Juan.
Another political crisis that occurred in the advisorship of Don Juan was the Mancera Incident. It caused the opposition against Don Juan to turn into sympathy for the return of the queen. Throughout the exchanged letters between Carlos II and Mariana, the king sought to mediate between his mother and his main advisor. Records show that in one of the letters Carlos II had sent to Mariana, he stated that Don Juan was “prepared to obey”. The statement of the king was considered to be a peaceful approach of Don Juan in collaborating with Mariana. In November 1678, when the mother-son communication was almost at its best, Mariana wanted to have a reconciliation with her son. Mariana sent the mayordomo mayor of her, Marquis of Mancera, to meet Don Juan and arrange the reconciliation. According to the promises made by the king upon Mariana’s exile, the queen had the right to maintain communication with her son. Within the meeting with Don Juan, Mancera faced utter arrogance and the reconciliation request which the queen had the right to issue was strongly refused. Upon his arrival back at Toledo, Mancera wrote about the arrogance he faced by Don Juan and published the statements of the king regarding the authorities of Mariana, which were clearly ignored by the so-called “peace-seeking” advisor of the king. The incident was not well taken within the government. Many who had supported the reign of Mariana prior to the forced exile were disturbed by the contempt of Don Juan. The initial turning point for the return of the queen to be desired amongst the elite of the Spanish Empire was with the Mancera Incident.
Finally, after two years with Mariana’s stepson in the government, many formerly supporting Don Juan came to realize the critical issues of his administration. Don Juan’s position was one obtained by force, not one fought for like Mariana, — Although the position of Mariana was secured with the testimony of Philip IV, the regent fought hard to prove her eligibility for the regency and managed to install her authority — thus objection to the government of Don Juan was much easier to spread. Besides all, Don Juan was not even successful in establishing a proper communication with Carlos II throughout his term. Usually, failing to reach a consensus with his advisor, the king sought help from his mother in Toledo. The years 1678 and 1679 were ones to demonstrate the great success of Mariana in administration compared to her stepson thereof. Support for the queen was growing abruptly nearing the end of 1679. Meanwhile, the king’s marriage with Marie Louis was confirmed and planned, helping the reconciliation Mariana desired to be arranged between mother and son. Carlos II was now warmer to the idea of reconciliation and within the letters exchanged between Madrid and Toledo, mother and son discussed the plans for the reconciliation. One last letter was written by Mariana to arrange the meeting. The queen, in her latest letters, did not use a language as threatening as it was when she was exiled, rather she expressed her unconditional maternal affection for Carlos II and her utmost certainty that the king would choose the wise decision. Meanwhile, Don Juan was experiencing a harsh illness and despite his opposition to the reconciliation, he was too sick to interfere. On September 17, Don Juan passed away in his bed. Mourning took over the palace in Madrid and across Spain. As troubled as the queen seemed for the news, she was happy for the elimination of the primary obstacle in her reconciliation with Carlos II. On September 24, the day Mariana had long waited for arrived. Carlos II arrived at Toledo. According to the records, mother and son spent the entire day together in joy and Mariana described the day to be the best in her life. After the death of Don Juan and the reconciliation, the queen’s return was of no debate. Mariana left Toledo for Madrid on September 27. From those who originally objected to the rule of a woman to those supporting Don Juan during the coup, everyone welcomed the queen with applause in Madrid. Regarding her position in the government, Mariana made no requests and expressed her full trust in Carlos II to decide on the best for the future of Spain. As a successful regent, a caring mother and a wise politician, Mariana was one of the most significant figures in Spain during the 17th century.
During the reconciliation crisis, Carlos II signed the Treaty of Nijmegen, ending the war with France. Contrary to expectations, France had managed to resist against the Quadruple Alliance decently. The war exhausted all nations, though did not hinder the growing ambitions of France. Spain did not have the power to fight another war. In November, 1679, as discussed in the Council of State, Carlos II married Marie Louise of Orléans.
The marriage relieved the tensions between the two rival empires and started a period of peace. Both France and Spain were widely celebrating the marriage, though for Spain, the marriage would not provide the male heir Carlos II needed. Throughout the marriage, no children were born. Elites of Spain were growing concerned for the aftermath of the reign of Carlos II, for the king was growing sicker every day and was without an heir. As tensions grew across the empire due to the uncertain succession, in February 1689, Marie Louise passed away. The empire was in mourning when the queen died, though for many, the death was a fortunate incident, restoring the hopes for the empire to have a successor. Upon the death of Marie Louise, the king married Maria Anna of Neuburg in May 1690. The second marriage of the Bewitched King also was childless. The empire was facing a great threat as eventually, those witnessing the vacancy in succession came forward with their own claims for the throne. By then, the king’s health was immensely deteriorating. Carlos II started experiencing frequent fainting, swelling and hallucinations in the early 1690s. The title, Bewitched King, was used for Carlos II during this troubled period. As the new century neared, around the late 1690s, the king almost became incapacitated, spending most of his days in his bed. As long expected, the king died in his bed on November 1, 1700.
The king did not have any children throughout his reign of 35 years, dragging the already weakened Spanish Empire into a bloody race for the throne upon his death on November 1, 1700, of what is believed to be a severe case of acute organ failure. The succession crisis of the Spanish throne was indeed long foreseen during the final years of the king’s reign and various heirs were proclaimed by different parties. Also, in 1696, the main advisor and the mother of Carlos II, Mariana of Austria, had passed away. The Bewitched King was without his greatest and most-trusted advisor entering the succession crisis.
The king of Spain, Carlos II, was with no child during his reign. Thus, the heir for the Spanish throne was to be chosen from the Spanish Habsburgs. The most eligible candidate for the succession was Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria. Ferdinand was the son of Maria Antonia, niece to Carlos II, and was one of the few male children in the family. Although he was not directly a part of the Spanish Habsburg line, Carlos II chose to support his claim, supposedly for he seemed to be the only candidate mered of foreign influence. Unlike Ferdinand, other candidates posed the threat of a Spanish partition upon their successions. Around the last years of Carlos II, both France and the Holy Roman Empire had territorial claims over Spanish lands and granting a successor of the Spanish throne to any of both nations would leave Spain utterly vulnerable. Prior to the death of Carlos II, Joseph Ferdinand was proclaimed as the descendant of the Spanish throne. Unfortunately for the Spanish Empire, he died before the Bewitched King in 1699. When Ferdinand passed away, other claimants had to be considered for the succession. The prominent ones of those were Philip of Anjou, Archduke Charles of Austria and Louis de France. Louis de France was the eldest son of Louis XIV from Maria Theresa. His claim depended on his mother, Maria Theresa, —who was the eldest daughter of Philip IV of Spain — though both Louis XIV and Maria chose to support their grandson, Philip of Anjou, overshadowing Louis de France. Philip of Anjou, grandson to the French king, was supported by a broad French and pro-French Spanish population. He was a more beloved figure than Louis of France and . The last prominent candidate was Archduke Charles of Austria. Son of Leopold I, Charles was directly from the Habsburg family line. His claim on the Spanish throne derived from his grandmother, Maria Anna of Spain.
With the death of the candidate seen to be the safest for the empire, Joseph Ferdinand, Spain was left in a major dilemma. The king was childless and his condition was deteriorating each passing day. It was crucial for Carlos II to determine a successor prior to his death as Spanish territory was long desired by the powers of Europe and a vacant throne would drive France and Austria to execute the formerly negotiated partition treaty. When making the decision, Carlos II did not have his mother who always acted on his behalf in times of crisis by his side. As of the cancelled engagement of the king, Spanish relations with the Austrian Habsburgs had gradually degraded. It was believed that in case of the succession of an Austrian Habsburg, Spain would be vulnerable to the partition of Austria and France. The Austrian candidate would, supposedly, sacrifice Spanish assets to provide for the Holy Roman Empire and would grant France the demands of Louis XIV to avoid a dispute between the nations. The pressure of Louis XIV, however, was even greater than that of Leopold I in the succession crisis. Considering France being the greatest power of Europe and their broad claims across Spanish lands, a resolution that would please Louis XIV was needed for the succession crisis. The safer option for the future of the empire seemed to be choosing Philip of Anjou, for a French ruler would secure the position of Spain in Europe and would be able to utilize the military capabilities of France to assist the Spanish Army. In 1700, when the impending death of Carlos II was clear, the Bewitched King wrote a will for his succession. In his will, the king declared Philip of Anjou as his successor on the circumstance that he would not unify Spain and France. According to the will, the Spanish Empire was to remain separate from France, thus hopefully preventing the feared exploitation of Spanish lands and resources. Philip of Anjou was proclaimed Philip V of Spain shortly after the death of Carlos II, on November 17, 1700. His official coronation took place in April 1701 and it marked the beginning of the Bourbon rule in Spain.
Although the succession crisis was resolved, other European powers were disturbed by the new king of Spain. Resenting the exclusion of the Habsburgs in the Spanish throne, Leopold I desired the rule of his own son, Charles V, in Spain. Nations such as Prussia, Great Britain and the Dutch Republic decided to support the cause of Leopold I, for the rule of Bourbons in Spain would grant France another strong ally and would make Louis XIV undefeatable in Europe. Therefore, in September 1701, the Treaty of Hague was signed amongst Great Britain, the Dutch Republic and Austria of the Grand Alliance (1689) to oppose the expansionist policies of Louis XIV and prevent France from prevailing in the Spanish succession struggle, forming the Second Grand Alliance. As tensions grew, Europe was awaiting a spark to ignite the vicious war for the Spanish throne.
War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) was triggered by the aggressive occupations of Louis XIV. After the constitution of the Second Grand Alliance in September 1701, with European nations declaring their support in favor of the Habsburgs or the Bourbons, war preparations commenced across Europe. Louis XIV, having assumed power in Spain with his grandson, had now begun preparing his plan to eliminate those opposing the rule of Spanish Bourbons. The greatest army of Europe still belonged to France and the French king did not hesitate to utilize the entirety of the empire’s military capabilities. His allies did not, however, hold such power and were mostly dependent on France’s military to even exercise power within their reigns. Philip V had not yet fully acquired the commitment of the Spanish elite and his rule was still fragile. Besides the domestic issues of its allies in Iberia, Spain and Portugal, the Iberian Peninsula was a significant asset for France. The possession of Iberia granted the pro-Bourbon alliance a great advantage in the Mediterranean and foremost, in Italy. With a broad campaign of recruitment, Louis XIV managed to create a huge army to enforce the rule of his grandson in Spain. The French military strength was equivalent to approximately 120k soldiers by the start of the war.
The situation was far worse for Spain, however. By the beginning of the war, although Bourbons had assumed the throne, Spain was largely divided from within. Due to the recent succession crisis, the already damaged Spanish Army was divided between the crowns of the Spanish Empire. The crown of Castile, which possessed most of central Spain, sided with the new Bourbon regime whereas most regions in Southern Spain, most significantly the lands of the crown of Aragon, became primary bases of resistance with their support for Archduke Charles. Consolidating power within Spain soon proved to be the greatest challenge of Philip V despite the generous assistance of Louis XIV. Records indicate that under the crown of Castile stood approximately 50k soldiers upon the declaration of war whilst the crown of Aragon held around 30k. Throughout the war, the divergence in Spanish crowns largely facilitated the advance of the Grand Alliance into the Iberian Peninsula, originating the main Southern battlefront and thus hindering the French military campaigns in Central Europe.
The Grand Alliance also faced challenges during the early stages of the War of the Spanish Succession. The Holy Roman Empire, one of the most significant belligerents of the war with their legitimate claim on the Spanish throne, was in a state of controversy with many of its electorate states either reluctant to join the war or directly supporting the cause of the rival claimant, Philip. Maximilian II Emanuel, the Electorate of Bavaria, was one of the first to declare his support for the Bourbon claimant, presumably because of his discontent with Habsburgs dominating the Holy Roman Empire. Bavaria had dynastic ties with France and Maximilian aimed to spread Bavarian influence across the Holy Roman Empire, hoping to diminish that of Austria. Many minor states towards the west of the empire, those near the borders of France, were hesitant to declare for Archduke Charles in the early stages of the war due to the French possession of a mighty military. Despite the considerable protection offered by the Rhine River, the military forces of the minor imperial estates were only sufficient in maintaining regional order. Those rather stronger in the region were also intimidated by the French strength and drawn to fight beside the Bourbons to avert total occupation. A member of the Bavarian royal family, the Elector of Cologne, Joseph Clemens, also supported the Bourbon cause within the conflict. Additionally, the Electorate of Palatinate declared their support for the Bourbon claimant, partly because of their family ties with France and mostly for strategic purposes.
Austria was the most powerful of the members of the Holy Roman Empire and was the main holder of the empire’s armies. By the time the war was officially declared, the French had already begun their campaign in Northern Italy, in effort to seize the passage of Austria to the French mainland and Spain. The French had drawn the Duchy of Savoy to their sides and had the upper hand in Italy upon the start of the war. The Spanish holdings in Italy were significant strategic positions for the conflict and both Louis XIV and Leopold I prioritized the campaign of Italy in the early stages of war.
In 1701, Great Britain was embroiled in a number of crises. During the tense period of Europe, the Act of Settlement (1701) that determined the future of the British monarchy was passed in Great Britain. According to the settlement, it was ensured that only Protestants would have the right to succeed the British throne. The decision escalated further instability within the empire due to the growing hostility between Catholics and Protestants. The death of William III in 1702 brought Queen Anne to ascend the throne, yet having lost her only child in 1700, Queen Anne was with no heir to the British throne. House Stuart, the royal family of Queen Anne, was without an available heir to succeed the monarch and Sophia of Hanover of the House of Hanover was to succeed Queen Anne. The impending shift of power between the royal houses caused divergence and escalated chaos within the political environment of Great Britain. Despite the fierce state of politics, Great Britain held a mighty navy and army. Their trade was dependent on colonial assets and overseas trade had become a significant part of the British economy. Thus, the British were to play a major role in the war with their naval supremacy.
The death of William III had severely affected the Dutch Republic as well, yet with one of the wealthiest economies of the world, the Dutch Republic became a major belligerent of the War of the Spanish Succession. Throughout the years, after lasting vicious wars with the French Empire, the Dutch had reinforced their borders with France and Holland was well fortified against French offensives. Also with their powerful military and navy, the Dutch greatly contributed to the struggle against France. Though, with the Rhine River blocking the entrance of Louis XIV to Central Europe, the path through Flanders and the LowLands became the gateway for France into the Holy Roman Empire and one to enable them joining forces with their ally, Bavaria, and thus, the Dutch Republic became a major focal point of the war.
Since the day Philip of Anjou was proclaimed Philip V of Spain, preparations for war continued immensely. France started a broad campaign of recruitment and with its economic capability, the French forces were well-equipped, unlike any in Europe at the time. All nations began mobilizing and preparing for war, though the first clashes occurred in Northern Italy, between the French and Imperial forces. By May 1701, French forces were widely deployed in Northern Italy and the Milanese was determined as a strategic base of defence for the French armed forces. Louis XIV wanted to secure defensive positions and advance further into Italy. The appointed generals for the French operation were insufficient in collaboration and were not on good terms during the campaign, granting an advantage to the Austrian forces. The Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold I, was wise in his planning and desired to eliminate French presence in Italy, thus also capturing Spanish assets and strengthening power in the Mediterranean. The renowned general, Eugene of Savoy, was assigned to the region for the Austrian operations. Benefiting from the French insufficiency in communication and planning, with Eugene’s military expertise, the Austrian forces led a fake attack on Milan and drew the attention of the French forces while relocating directly towards the left flank of the French army. It was a great accomplishment for Eugene to move a large force through such harsh terrain in Italy, but the general was experienced and the repositioning was initiated swiftly. After receiving the news, French generals ordered a hasty withdrawal back to the Minico River, but Eugene decided to go left from the new defensive position of the French and the French forces were forced to withdraw yet again. After the great success of Eugene, the French generals were replaced on August 23, 1701. The new commander of the force was François de Neufville, Duke of Villeroi; a renowned marshall of the French army. His arrival was celebrated and Louis XIV hoped to repair the failure of the previous generals with the new wise military-man, Villeroi. The new commander increased the morale of the forces, yet also was not able to prevail against Eugene of Savoy. During Villeroi’s arrival, the Imperial Forces under Eugene advanced towards Chiari and built strong defensive trenches. Well hidden and unbeknownst to the French Army, the defensive fortifications were not taken into consideration in the planning of the French assault. Thus, on September 1, 1701, French, Spanish and Savoyard forces led by Villeroi initiated an offensive on the Austrian positions. The battle was catastrophic for the French forces as the attack was initiated without intel and the Imperial Forces were highly advantageous in their defensive positions. Having been forced to retreat, Villeroi was in great despair. The king personally wrote to him and expressed his trust in Villeroi’s command, helping him stabilize the army’s morale, to reorganize the dispersed army and withdraw. No further clashing was possible with the exhausted French army and Villeroi settled an army camp in Cremona to prepare and go in winter quarters. France was greatly pushed back from their lines in Italy and a significant base of communication, Milan, was in danger. The first major triumph against France was achieved and Leopold I, witnessing French insufficiency in Italy, planned to enhance the Italian campaign, hoping the major loss of France to convince imperial states about joining the war or for those pro-Bourbon, about switching sides.
The initial offensive that led to the official declaration of war was of France on the Spanish Netherlands. Their entry to Central Europe blocked by the Rhine River, the French sought openings to access the center of the Holy Roman Empire and enforce their rule amongst the minor imperial states. The occupation of the Low Countries would grant France a decent advantage in the war and was, indeed, the evermore desire of the French king. The offensive on the Spanish Netherlands would be a significant challenge if the Dutch were prepared and ready, for the region was fit for heavy fortifications, though confident of his power and intimacy, Louis XIV did not consider the possible escalation of a war with the Dutch. Maximilian Emanuel-Wittelsbach or Maximillian II for short, one of the few crucial pro-Bourbon figures in the Holy Roman Empire, was the Elector of Bavaria and was an antagonist to Austrian influence in the Holy Roman Empire. Maximilian II, the governor-general of the region France intended to occupy, sided with the French in the dispute and made a secret agreement with the French king, Louis XIV. According to the agreement, upon a war with the Maritime Powers, Maximilian II was to grant French armies access over the Spanish Netherlands and hand over the administration of the region to France. He promised to also join the war efforts on the pro-Bourbon side with Bavarian forces. In early February 1701, the French started moving towards the Spanish Netherlands. Nearly no resistance was faced and France easily captured the significant strategic bases in Flanders. The occupation of the region was with the intent that the king of Spain, grandson of Louis XIV, would assume control over the area he rightfully owned. Supposedly, Louis XIV was to invade the Spanish Netherlands to drive off those usurping the land of his grandson. Contrary to the claims of the French king, once the Barrier Towns were occupied, the region remained under French governance. The initial invasion of Flanders was not with the intention or the awareness of escalating a war. Having acquired all his claims without much trouble throughout the past, Louis XIV was ambitious and somewhat blind. Unforeseen by Louis XIV, the offensive on Flanders was to alarm the Maritime Powers, Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, to take action against the French Empire. The formerly established alliance to resist French aggression, the Grand Alliance, had to be rebuilt. The Imperial Forces were already clashing with French forces in Italy and the Maritime Powers were highly threatened by the French advance in Flanders, leading to the constitution of the Second Grand Alliance with the Treaty of The Hague on September 7, 1701. Tensions grew across Europe with the French offensive, yet Louis XIV was not willing to cease his advance. In November 1701, the French king sent forces to occupy the Bishopric of Cologne and the Bishopric of Liège. Joseph-Clement Wittelsbach, Elector-Bishop of Cologne, declared his support for the French, though his council thought otherwise and called in the Grand Alliance for help. It was time for the Grand Alliance to halt the French advance and eliminate the great threat posed by Louis XIV. When Louis XIV realised the gathering of forces against his empire, an ambassador was sent to the Dutch Republic, delivering the proposal of Louis XIV which offered that if the Dutch would abandon the Grand alliance, France would separate peace in Holland. With no promises to return the French-occupied lands, the offer was not one worth considering for the Dutch.
The war was near, but William III did not live to see it. The king of Great Britain died on March 19, 1702, leaving the throne to his sister-in-law, Princess Anne. The queen came with promises of securing Protestant succession and responding to the French terror. Queen Anne would soon prove to be as determined and powerful as her brother-in-law in Britain’s struggle against France.
The official declaration of war against the French Empire and the French Prince in Spain by members of the Grand Alliance unfolded on May 15, 1702. The French invasion of the Barrier Towns was a clear violation of the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick which prohibited such French aggressions threatening Dutch territory, thus driving the Grand Alliance to officialize the war against France.
War was now a reality for Europe and belligerents started grand campaigns of mobilization. Armies were gathered and it soon proved that Europe was to face one of the greatest and most vicious wars in its history. As the preparations were being made, a question upon the command of Anglo-Dutch armies occurred. Whilst the British, putting forth their contributions and financial strength, requested the supreme command to be under a British-chosen commander, the Dutch desired the command of one of their choice. The disagreement was close to becoming a broad scale conflict when a candidate acceptable for both nations came forth, Earl of Marlborough. The new candidate was of high military expertise, having fought in the fields for over 40 years. The gathering against Louis XIV and his grandson soon proved to be impressive and even frightening to some point for the pro-Bourbon side. The Grand Alliance had secured the support of Denmark, Hanover, Brandenburg and many more minor to major Imperial States. Although not all were in position to afford a direct war with France, most minor states provided the Grand Alliance with mercenary forces to fight beside them. In the early stages of the war, with all sides prepared and ready, Holland was the most crucial objective for the French to invade and for the Grand Alliance to defend, as the control over the area could grant either side a major advantage. For the task, veteran Marshall Boufflers was sent north with an army 60.000 strong.
Meanwhile, in early February 1702, Villeroi was still stationary in his position in Cremona. The Imperial Forces under Prince Eugene had advanced deep into Northern Italy, yet Eugene did not have enough reinforcements or supplies to fulfill the needs of his brigade. By then, Pope Clement XI had declared the church’s support for Louis XIV, discouraging the locals from providing supplies to the Imperial Army and worsening the situation of Prince Eugene. Supplies of the Imperial Army were deteriorating each day and Eugene was forced to take action. His plan was to strike the French positions in Cremona, thus clearing the path to Milan, and continuing his advance all the way to Milan. The city of Milan was a crucial asset for the French with its strong defenses and wide supply range. If Eugene managed to capture the supply bases of the French in Milan, the French could be driven back and the Imperial army could be replenished. On February 1, 1702, Eugene ordered his forces to attack Cremona. The attack was sudden and forces under Eugene managed to take out the gate guards, hastily entering the city. Informed of the surprise attack, Villeroi rushed to the battleground, half dressed, and joined the defenses of the city guard. While clashing with the enemy, before the reinforcements could arrive, Villeroi was taken prisoner by the Imperial forces. Though, soon the reinforcements arrived to help the minor resistance of the garrison units and the Imperial forces were driven out of the city after vicious fighting. Prince Eugene had no choice but to withdraw, and so he did. The Imperial forces withdrew from Cremona, taking Villeroi prisoner beside them. When word reached Paris that Villeroi was captured, Louis-Joseph de Bourbon, the astute Duc de Vendôme was appointed to the command of the army in Northern Italy, who would soon prove to be a more challenging enemy to Eugene than Villeroi.
By then, the British were planning a greater offensive against Spain. French domination of the Mediterranean was a huge obstacle for the Maritime Powers in accessing their colonies. Most of the British and Dutch trade was interrupted by French naval forces in the region and the Grand Alliance did not have any way of entering the Mediterranean Sea. With Spain on his side, Louis XIV had assumed control over the trade routes of its enemies, threatening the financial supremacy of the Grand Alliance. Additionally, with the broad Spanish control over the Indies, British colonies in America were under risk of attack. Great Britain could not take action upon the French blockade, not that the British navy was weak against that of France but for the Spanish ports provided supplies to French ships and such an opportunity was not available for the British. With the counsel of her military advisors, William III issued an order to attack the Spanish region of Cadiz. Cadiz not only was the Spanish naval base, the port of the city was also one of the most crucial supply bases of the French navy. If the Grand Alliance set foot on Spanish soil, it was believed that the already reluctant Portugal would be intimidated to cease their support for the Bourbons. To commence the negotiations, Prince George visited the Portuguese Court and was welcomed by the royal family into Lisbon. The Cadiz offensive was now crucial for the Grand Alliance as the British envoy in Lisbon was greeted much friendlier than what the British had expected and Portugal proved to be even less stable in their position in the war. With a navy fifty battleships strong, the British initiated their landing on Spanish soil on August 26, 1702. The convoy carried over 14.000 soldiers and was described by Pedro II, king of Portugal, as impressive.
The British forces faced nearly no resistance from the locals of the region, as overall, the population within Cadiz mostly desired the rule of the Habsburg king, Charles. To utilize the local support and eliminate the regional obstacles, the commanders of the British army prohibited acts of looting and violence towards Spanish locals. Throughout the beginning of the naval landing, the British forces were well disciplined and organized. Though, as the fort of Santa Caterina was captured, the soldiers entering the fort captured a huge wine stock. Later that night, according to the records, the major superiority of the British forces was drunk. The installed discipline was abandoned and the soldiers began raiding nearby residences, violating the primary rule of the operation which was to avoid violence. With the British forces assaulting the locals of the region, the course of the campaign shifted. The Spanish in Cadiz were now angered by the primal treatment of the British and decided to resist the foreigners. Although significant progress was made in the invasion, the greatest advantage of the Grand Alliance in the naval invasion was lost. Later, the Spanish reinforcements arrived at the region and were welcomed by the locals in hopes for them to be their saviours. The British were expecting to face Spanish forces, yet the growing power of the local resistance hindered the British advance into the region and left the invasion army without opportunities to initiate new offensives. After a short period of clashes, the British forces were ordered to re-embark. By September 28, Prince George, the commanders of the British army and most of the brigade had returned to Lisbon, leaving but minor defenses behind to gain time for the withdrawal. Following the major failure in Cadiz, an opportunity for the Grand Alliance to persuade Portugal unfolded. A short while after the British navy returned to Lisbon with the invasion forces, reports arrived at Lisbon informing the arrival of the Spanish treasure fleet near Galicia. Sir George Rooke, admiral of the British Royal Navy, upon being informed of the arriving Spanish fleet, was rapid in the planning of his operation to take over the Spanish treasury. After the long journey the Spanish fleet had been through, the ships anchored in Vigo Bay to deliver the treasure to the mainland. With the wise orders of Rooke, the British navy approached Vigo Bay, hidden from the Spanish reconnaissance, and clashed with the neatly protected Spanish fleet. During the bombardment, both the anchored Spanish ships alongside those newly arriving and French ships already located in the ports were brutally damaged and sunk, leaving those remaining on the surface in flames. Unfortunately for the British, the Spanish silvers were already transported into the Spanish mainland and the allied forces could not capture much of the delivery. Philip V was delivered nearly 7 million silver pesos, but the financial aid was still not enough to cover the expenses of the Spanish military and the naval casualties. With the victory in Vigo Bay, the French dream of ruling the seas was crushed and the Spanish navy received critical damage. That was when Pedro II of Portugal started to welcome the idea of siding with the Grand Alliance, as with the French and Spanish navies critically struck, the Portuguese concern of being separated from their colonies due to French and Spanish naval supremacy in case of Portugal joining the war alongside the Grand Alliance was no longer possible. Thus, negotiations took place in Lisbon between Portugal and the Grand Alliance, resulting in the official entry of Portugal into the alliance on July 14, 1703. When word reached Louis XIV that Pedro II was in negotiations with the Grand Alliance, the French king dispatched a French envoy to Lisbon to convince the Portuguese king, yet all efforts of Louis XIV proved ineffective. The offer presented by the Grand Alliance was with more assurance of protection for the Portuguese, proposing to yield the command of 12.000 allied troops alongside 12 battleships to Portugal upon their initial entry to the war. The tides of war were to be majorly turned with the opening of the Portuguese front in the War of the Spanish Succession.
The French plan in the Low Countries was to rapidly eliminate the Dutch before the forces of Queen Anne could arrive in Flanders. Boufflers, commander of the campaign in the Low Countries, gathered his forces at Xanten where he could observe the Dutch armies. Meanwhile, the Dutch had begun the siege of Kaiserswerth on the Rhine and Tallard was sent with approximately 13.000 French troops to defend the city. The commander of the Dutch armies was Godert Rede van Ginkel and his forces were stationed in Cleves. In June 1702, Boufflers issued an order to move his armies to Cleves to confront Ginkel, intending to land a critical blow to the Dutch in the early stages of the war. The courage of Boufflers was considered impressive by Louis XIV and hopes were high for the offensive in Flanders. During the French advance, the Dutch sent forces to raid Western Flanders, disrupting lines of French communication and escalating civil unrest within the region. The operation was a critical distraction for the French armies and forces had to be diverted to the region to maintain stability. The initial French offensive had lost some of its power, yet Boufflers was determined to advance further. The Marshall of France had set his eyes on the Dutch fortress of Maastricht, for it was near the supply and communication lines of the French army. On June 30, 1702, the Earl of Marlborough arrived at Flanders to take over the command of the 60.000 strong Anglo-Dutch army. The replacement of Ginkel caused some disarray, though the Anglo-Dutch army was now superior in numbers with the French army separated. Aware of his superiority, Marlborough was determined to drive the French back with a forthright offensive.
Meanwhile, the siege of Kaiserswerth could not be reached by Tallard and his 13.000 strong army. Tallard wrote to Boufflers to inform the failure to reach the siege, for the Dutch were positioned well and were ready for the arrival of the predicted reinforcements. On July 26, Marlborough convinced his commanders that an advance south would not be much risky. Contrary to the claims of Marlborough, if the Anglo-Dutch army was to encounter the French during the advance, Boufflers would be largely advantageous, yet the Earl of Marlborough was wise to assume that the French would not expect such an attack. By the order of Marlborough, the Anglo-Dutch forces began marching towards Lille St. Hubert. Boufflers, as Marlborough had expected, was caught off-guard for the march and the French armies were ordered to withdraw towards the Meuse. After the withdrawal, Louis XIV wrote to Boufflers and sent firm orders that the fortresses along the Meuse be held no matter what, or the commander was to be driven away from the front. The allied offensive would be hampered by the lack of supplies in case the French army was successful in maintaining its position along the Meuse, yet Boufflers was aware of the marching Anglo-Dutch armies and the mission seemed impossible. The Anglo-Dutch army proceeded to set siege on the fortresses in Liège. Boufflers and Louis XIV were both aware of the consequences of losing Liège to the allied forces, as in case the region fell, the Elector of Cologne who had originally supported the Bourbon cause would have to come to terms with the Grand Alliance, depriving France from yet another of its allies. Regardless of the firm resistance, Liège fell to the Anglo-Dutch armies at the end of October. The Elector-Bishop of Cologne was forced to declare neutrality and France not only had lost the upper-hand in the Low Countries, but now was vulnerable to the Anglo-Dutch advance. Boufflers departed from the front but with the orders of Louis XIV, he was reassigned to the command of the army. The minor crisis in the command damaged the morale of the French forces, yet the Anglo-Dutch advance was not at its best state as well, providing opportunities for the French. By then, the Earl of Marlborough was made a duke for his success against the French by Queen Anne.
The campaign of 1703 started with the new duke’s siege of Bonn. The city was captured after nearly 2 weeks of resistance and Marlborough was determined to continue his so far successful campaign. The next mission of the Anglo-Dutch forces was to capture the ports of Antwerp and Ostend, aiming to establish a new base for supplies. The advance had gone further than the expectations of the Dutch commanders and the armies of Marlborough soon faced insufficiency in supplies. To continue his expedition, Marlborough needed supplies and to fulfill the needs of his massive army, the duke ordered his forces to collect levy contributions from surrounding settlements. Collecting levy contributions was basically the legitimized way of looting and raiding. With the forces given the orders, Anglo-Dutch troops scattered and raided surrounding settlements. The collection was seen as legitimate, for the region officially belonged to the new duke, yet the local populace was obviously antagonistic to the idea. As the level of violence grew during the replenishment of the armies, local resistance started growing within the occupied regions as well. All in once, Marlborough found himself troubled by the raids and clashes of minor resistance forces across Flanders. Thus, the army was diverted across the area to suppress the uprisings and consolidate authority. Additionally, to occupy the region and to eliminate French garrisons, Marlborough separated his forces into smaller groups to attack all at once.
As word reached Boufflers, the French army rapidly organized and began their march towards the separated forces of Marlborough. To the north of Antwerp, the village of Eckeren was with the forces of the Dutch commander, Opdam, stationed within. Boufflers was informed of the considerably minor Dutch force stationed in the village and plans to attack Opdam were made. Alarmed by the reports that informed Marlborough upon the gathering of French forces, the new duke wrote to his commander to inform him of the French marching towards his positions. Before Marlborough could deliver his message, word reached his quarters that Boufflers had attacked the village of Eckeren. The Dutch forces were overwhelmed and driven back by the French forces. On June 30, 1703, as the allied forces had feared, Boufflers reached Antwerp with over 20,000 forces.
The Dutch had suffered around 4,000 casualties in the battle of Eckeren and Opdam was nowhere to be found after the defeat. By early July, Boufflers had settled into Antwerp and built defensive fortifications inside the city. On July 5, 1703, Marlborough gathered his forces to approach the French lines in Antwerp, though disarray within the army had escalated excessively with the Dutch commanders arguing upon whom to blame for the disaster in Eckeren. After the loss of Antwerp to the French, Marlborough realised the unlikelihood of achieving success against Boufflers if he attacked Antwerp, thus ordering his army back to the Meuse and laying siege to Huy. Marlborough sought to capture Huy, to then move towards Namur and take control over the region. Namur was one of the most significant positions for the allied forces to capture, as with the control of Namur, it was possible for the British and the Dutch to transfer supplies through the Meuse and thus, easing their campaign across Flanders. The siege started in mid-August and Louis XIV was concerned for the strategic base, Namur. The French king ordered the departure of the army located in Antwerp, now under the command of Villeroi. The French believed that Marlborough would not dare to continue the siege of Huy with the presence of French forces near. Yet, the new duke continued the siege and captured the fort on August 26. A battle was yet to unfold between the French and Anglo-Dutch field armies, though Marlborough was successful in clearing the garrisons of France across the region, leaving the Spanish Netherlands vulnerable.
During the campaign of Marlborough, on March 4, 1703, the first encounter of the imperial forces and Bavarians occurred. Maximilian II had started gathering his armies and Bavaria was, seemingly, waiting for an opportunity to attack. General von Schlick of Austria, however, sought to eliminate the Bavarian threat once and for all. During the night of March 4, Schlick led his forces to attack the Bavarian military camp in an ambush. The Bavarian forces were utterly paralyzed from the surprise attack of the Austrian forces. The encamped Bavarians were hardly ready for battle, with most not even equipped.
After the Austrian forces were heroically driven back by the Bavarians, Maximilian II captured the town of Ratisbon and Neuburg. Meanwhile, French commander Villars was leading the French forces in Northern Italy. Villars sought to combine his strength with the Bavarian army up north, for the merged Franco-Bavarian army would be devastating in the Bavarian front compared to that of Austria. Villars wanted to march directly towards Vienna from both sides, joining forces in the attack to the city, yet Maximilian II sought to combine the strength of both armies first, to then move towards critical Austrian positions. The Bavarian elector moved towards Tyrol and Villards tried to create a passage through the Trentino region. Both commanders faced critical issues in the execution of their plans. Maximilian II faced immense Tyrolese resistance within the harsh terrain and was heavily slowed down by the local forces, whereas Villards struggled with mutiny and treason within his forces. One of his prominent commanders, Victor-Amadeus, whom Villards was already suspecting of sabotage on allied supplies, turned against the cause of Louis XIV. Villards did not want to continue his expedition with his suspicions, for the possible leakage of information and intrigue would have been brutal for the French operation. Even after the crisis was resolved and the traitors were detected, Villards, having witnessed the struggle of the Bavarian forces in the region, was still hesitant to advance into the mountainous area. Although the Bavarians had managed to capture Innsbruck, the plan to join forces with Villards was postponed. In mid-July, Margrave of Baden brought his forces near the Danube to face the incoming French and Bavarians. Austrians dispatched a new army to Tyrol, where the Bavarian forces under Maximilian II was stationed, to confront the enemy, yet the Bavarian Elector had presumed the Austrian plans and moved his forces out of Tyrol. The wise decision to withdraw was told by the Bavarians to be a rear escape from massacre. From there, the Elector once again moved South, aiming to join Villards. Count von Styrum, with his 18.000-strong army, was moving to combine forces with Baden. The count decided to wait for a day near the plains of Höchstädt to let his artillery trains catch up to the army. The delay in his march would soon prove to be catastrophic for the count, as his camp was left directly in between the marching forces of both Villards and Maximilian II. Unaware of the masses moving towards his positions, the count remained within the camps. On September 20, 1703, the count was caught by the combined forces of Villeroi and Maximilian II. Although the well equipped imperial cavalry proved their strength in the battle, the count had no chance against the 70.000-strong Franco-Bavarian army. The Austrian forces fled in disarray after a short period of clashing and with the Count von Styrum defeated, the rear of Baden’s army was left vulnerable. Meanwhile, during the French campaign in Northern Italy, amongst the ones who deserted the army was Victor-Amadeus of Savoy. After negotiations with the Grand Alliance, the count returned to Savoy and declared his support for Archduke Charles, yet Savoyards could not contribute much to the war efforts as they did not have a decent army.
The war also continued on the Rhine, with Tallard moving into Alsace and laying siege on the fortress of Brisach. The siege started on August 23, 1703, lasted 2 weeks and the fortress was captured by the French with ease. From there on, Tallard moved to Landau on the River Queich. On the Austrian front, due to the different approaches of the two generals, the plans of Villeroi and Maximilian II started to collide, resulting in a coordination issue for the Franco-Bavarian army. Louis XIV personally wrote to Villeroi, stating his obligation to abide by the orders of Maximilian II, as he was the blood of the French king and was a significant ally to France. Failing to cooperate, Villeroi was sent to deal with an insurrection in the Cevennes region, yielding the command to the newly promoted marshall Ferdinand Marsin. On the Rhine front, in November, 1703, the local allied forces marched to Landau in an attempt to raise the siege laid by Tallard, resulting in a catastrophic defeat for the imperial forces. The fortress was thus captured and Tallard marked yet another major success in his campaign.
The war was not, however, as prospering for the Grand Alliance. The British were overwhelmed by the expanses of the war. The Dutch were hesitant to face the French army in the field and were mostly stationed in defensive positions. In Austria, a new army to cease the French advance across the Rhine was dispatched, yet the force was both much fewer than the French army they were sent to face and the general assigned to the Austrian forces was stubborn, causing a disagreement between the Austrian commanders, thus delaying the Austrian arrival to defend the Rhine.
Early in 1704, Marlborough sought to eliminate the Franco-Bavarian forces threatening Vienna. The Dutch were reluctant to transfer their troops to Southern Germany while the French campaign in the Low Countries continued, but Queen Anne allowed Marlborough to depart to the region. The Dutch were concerned for the vulnerability of Holland against the French threat after Marlborough left, though the duke convinced the Dutch commanders that his march towards Southern Germany would not be ignored and would drive the French to relocate forces from the Holland front. As the duke expected, Louis XIV gave orders to Tallard to follow Marlborough into Southern Germany to assist the Franco-Bavarian forces. On June 22, Marlborough and Baden combined forces, creating a force some 60.000 strong, moving to confront Marsin and Maximilian II who only held around 40.000. It was in his march to the Austrian front that Marlbourough found the chance to meet the leader of the imperial war council, Eugene of Savoy. According to the plans, Eugene was to gather his army and approach the Rhine to halt the French offensives and prevent the French from dispatching reinforcements to Southern Germany whilst the combined forces of Baden and Marlborough were to eliminate the Franco-Bavarian army in the south with their numerical superiority.
On July 2, 1704, the Austro-British forces attacked Schellenberg, driving the stationed French forces back after a fierce fighting. The battle was won, but with heavy consequences. The allied armies had lost over 5.000 soldiers in the struggle to capture Schellenberg. Although Marlborough was heavily criticized for his plan to attack Schellenberg, the control of the fortress was to allow the allied armies to move across the Danube and confront the French and Bavarian forces. Mersin and Maximilian II were hesitant to confront Marlborough and Baden in open field due to their disadvantage in numbers, hence the duke had to find a way to face and crush the opposing armies. In early-July, Baden and Marlborough crossed the Danube and started their march towards Bavaria. The small fortress of Rain was successfully captured by the allied armies and the electress of Bavaria begged her husband to cease the war and accept allied terms. Maximilian II, however, was persistent in his cause and refused to negotiate with the Grand Alliance. Upon the refusal, Marlborough ordered his cavalry into a campaign of massacre and destruction. The British cavalry scattered the settlements in the countryside and murdered the local populace, looting every supply they had found. The bloodshed Marlborough ordered was widely condemned and criticized, yet the supply chain of the region was destroyed and no armies could settle in winter camps in Bavaria as of then, which simply showed that the duke was successful in his plan. The ones to be affected by the British raids was, however, the Bavarian local populace and with no supplies at hand when winter arrived, the Bavarians starved and froze to death in their scattered homes that winter. Despite all the brutality, Maximilian II was determined to maintain his alliance with the French. The impending arrival of French troops under Tallard was a relief for the Bavarian Elector, for winter had passed and with Marlborough’s costly attack on Schellenberg, the Bavarians could resist against the Grand Alliance. Marlborough was ineffective in preventing Tallard’s relocation and his actions were gradually more criticized. Eugene of Savoy had camped on the north-bank of Danube with his 18.000 troops while Marlborough and Baden remained in Rain with the larger army. The course of action determined with the consensus of the three commanders included Baden taking his army of 15.000 to the Bavarian fortress of Ingolstadt. On August 10, 1704, the Franco-Bavarian forces crossed the north-bank of Danube to confront Eugene. With a hasty retreat, Eugene managed to take his forces back to Münster, where his forces combined with those of Marlborough. Baden was sent off with his own army and the allied armies no longer were superior in numbers. On the night of August 13, the combined forces of Marlborough and Eugene attacked the encamped Franco-Bavarian army. Tallard was yet to reach the army camp of Marsin and had camped in the village of Blenheim. The battle lasted for days and was an absolute massacre. The army of Tallard suffered up to 20.000 casualties and 13.000 men were taken prisoners without resistance. The night ambush of imperial forces was one of the most significant events in the war. The battle was also costly for the Grand Alliance, having lost around 12.000 soldiers, still, the glorious victory was to be celebrated across Europe.
After the victory, Baden had already captured Ingolstadt and went north to join Eugene and Marlborough, capturing the fortress of Ulm together. Baden quickly went on to pursue the heavily struck enemy forces on their way to the Rhine. Villeroi, informed about the disaster, went forward from the Rhine to reorganize the fleeing French forces. He then initiated a swift defensive retreat, both slowing the enemy down and securing the defeated French armies. When Baden and Eugene reached the Rhine, the two commanders laid siege on Landau. Meanwhile, Marlborough was moving to combine his forces with the Dutch commander Overkirk in Holland. The siege of Landau was far more challenging than what the two commanders had expected. The garrison managed to hold the fortress against the imperial forces for 70 days, but with the supplies running out and the forces overwhelmed, Landau fell on November 29, 1704. The heroic resistance in Landau was a major setback for the imperial forces as winter was approaching and the army had to replenish before continuing the advance. Meanwhile, Marlborough and Overkirk moved towards the Moselle and captured Trier and Trarbach, penetrating the base of the French defenses along the Rhine. After the exhausting but prosperous campaign, Marlborough returned to London to deliver his prisoners. He was welcomed by the parliament and to reward his magnificent success, the construction of a new palace for the duke was arranged, named the Blenheim Palace to honor the success of Marlborough in the battle.
In late 1703, Louis XIV realised that his grandson, Philip V, required military assistance to consolidate power and resist against the allied-aided Portuguese. For the campaign, Louis XIV assigned James Fitzjames, Duke of Berwick. Berwick gathered an army 12.000-strong in the Spanish Netherlands and moved them towards Madrid to assist the Spanish. On February 15, 1704, Berwick entered Madrid and was appointed as the Captain-General of French and Spanish armies in the peninsula. The Spanish forces were brave, yet were poorly equipped and could not maintain a firm stance against the Portuguese forces aided by the Grand Alliance. Nonetheless, it was possible to forge an army 40.000-strong with the Spanish soldiers. During the departure of Berwick, Archduke Charles, with some 4.000 British and Dutch forces, landed in Lisbon in March, 1704. The British navy was still largely superior to that of France and after the arrival of Archduke Charles, the British admiral, Rooke, took with him a Portuguese fleet to confront the French navy in the Mediterranean Sea. The Portuguese involvement in the war was gradually posing a greater threat to Spain and France, hence the Captain-General of the Iberian armies decided to act first to eliminate the growing threat right next to Philip V. Berwick deployed around 28.000 troops to cross the Portuguese border whilst his enemy in Portugal, General Luis de Souza, Marquis de Minas, could gather around 21.000. The region was hardly suitable for the establishment of supply lines due to the underdeveloped infrastructure and overall, both armies were to face harsh challenges in maintaining organization. Considering the harsh terrain and weather conditions and the lack of supplies, Berwick would not be able to make use of his numerical superiority.
Baron Nicholas Fagel stood in the path of Berwick’s main advance, but with only some 2,500 Dutch troops under command he could do little to hinder the French and Spanish progress. The minor Portuguese fortresses of Salvatierra, Segura, Rosmarinus, Cabresos and Pena Garcia capitulate without too great a struggle, and Monsanto and Idanha-la-Vieille were both stormed by the French. The French advance was mostly successful until the summer of 1704 when the blazing heat of summer hit the Iberian Peninsula. The frontier was heavily dominated by the Franco-Spanish army. Due to the rough terrain, as Berwick advanced further into the Portuguese frontier, supplies of the Franco-Spanish army started to run short at a dangerous speed. The Portuguese were gradually aided more and more by the Grand Alliance, slowly shifting the upper-hand in the frontier. With their knowledge of the terrain, the Portuguese local resistance forces were active in guerilla warfare against the foreign invaders, raiding supply cargos and military camps throughout the Spanish border. Thus, on July 1, 1704, Berwick ordered his forces to retreat back to the Portuguese borders, destroying the French-captured defenses along the way. The regions Berwick conquered in Portugal were raided and looted by the Franco-Spanish armies and the Grand Alliance would not be able to provide sufficient supplies for their forces if they initiated a campaign over Spain.
Whilst the campaign of Berwick continued, Rooke was leading his fleet towards Barcelona. The British fleet, with 1.600 marines on board, landed its soldiers along the coastline of Barcelona. Rooke intended to draw the governor of Barcelona to the allied side and the landing was a show of force to intimidate the governor. The allied powers also believed that a Catalan uprising was possible to trigger with swift propaganda in the region. Don Velasco, governor of Barcelona, was firm in his support for Philip V, refusing the collaboration proposals of the British forces. On June 1, Rooke re-embarked with the marines located near the city of Barcelona to seek other opportunities after facing the governor’s determination. Cadiz was still a crucial strategic position in the war with most of the French and Spanish fleets resupplying there and without a remarkable triumph in the Spanish frontier, Great Britain was determined to land on Spanish soil, thus planning to initiate a fresh offensive on Cadiz. The allied fleet carrying the invasion forces crossed the strait on July 30, 1704, moving towards Gibraltar. Once the British fleet approached, the governor of Gibraltar was immediately ordered to yield, yet the brave governor chose to resist with his some 300 garrison troops. Upon the refusal to surrender, Rooke ordered the British fleet to start bombarding the city. For the following days, the garrison units and the local populace of the city experienced absolute inferno. According to the records, over 40.000 shells of battery charges, rifle ammunition and artillery were let loose on the 300-strong Spanish garrisons during the battle. After days of bombardment, the fortress fell and British forces were able to assume control. Informed of the British naval presence in the strait, the French admiral Toulouse gathered his fleet to move towards Gibraltar to hunt the separated British navy down. In August, 1704, Rooke received reinforcements for his fleet, yet Toulouse was still in his expedition to confront the British admiral. On August 24, Toulouse passed the straits and faced the British navy. The numbers of the two fleets were similar and the naval battle was inconclusive. Both fleets suffered immense casualties, though still, both were capable of clashing further. The next day, Toulouse urged his fellow admirals to attack Rooke, considering the lack of ammunition Rooke had due to the immense British bombardment of Gibraltar, yet the French admirals were hesitant to continue the engagement, for the French had suffered heavy casualties and did not have the resources to repair their ships. After the French decision to avoid engagement, Rooke moved his fleet back to Gibraltar Bay.
In mid-October, 1704, the Spanish and French forces arrived at Cadiz to retake the lost fortress of Gibraltar. The defenses were utterly demolished, yet the 1.000 Anglo-Dutch marines managed to build fortifications to defend the fortress. General Marquis de Villadarias had brought 8.000 troops from the Spanish army whilst the French admiral Pointis had landed nearly 4.000 French reinforcements near Cadiz. On October 21, the Franco-Spanish armies had approached Gibraltar and trenches were opened. Days later, a heavy bombardment on the already destroyed fortress began. The fighting was fierce, yet despite their huge numerical disadvantage, the marines managed to hold their positions. In mid-December, to replenish the marine battalion, Anglo-Dutch reinforcements arrived at the defenses of Gibraltar. The plans of Villadarias seemed to have been crushed, as even after months of offensives, the garrison still chose to resist and by then, Villadarias had given excessive casualties due to the lack of supplies and sickness. In January, 1705, Villadarias was replaced with Marshal Tessé. The struggle lasted until April when Tessé realised the consequences of trying to retake the fortress. The Spanish and French armies had given heavy casualties and still, the British garrisons did not seem to be any closer to surrender. Thus, Tessé ceased the offensive against the fortress, turning the siege of Gibraltar into a military blockade.
With the French navy damaged, the British were concerningly free in the Mediterranean. French commanders were expecting another British landing on Cadiz and garrisons had to be enhanced, yet the Franco-Spanish army of some 18.000 fighting in the region had around 12.000 sick and wounded after the Gibraltar operation. Tessé had to withdraw, for with the fortress of Gibraltar captured, the allies were soon to move troops to Southern Spain from Portugal. By February, 1705, the Franco-Spanish army initiated a hasty retreat under the command of Marshall Tessé. What Tessé had presumed shortly proved true when the rumors of an allied army, 20.000-strong, under command of Archduke Charles marching into Spain spread. By late-September, a force with over 20.000 troops was gathered in Portugal, which soon was joined by the rival claimant of the Spanish throne. The borders of Spain were defended by Berwick when the army of Archduke Charles began the advance. Instructions were given to Berwick that he must retreat, yet the stubborn commander ignored Madrid and held his position. He soon proved to be right, as the Portuguese army did not manage to defeat Berwick and was driven back to Portugal once again. After the victory, although Berwick had made the right decision, he was called back to France and Marshall Tessé was appointed the Captain-General of the Iberian armies, for Madrid desired a commander who listened to orders.
The Portuguese army, poorly equipped and hardly ready for combat, began another campaign in April, 1705. On May 3, the army reached the fortress of Valencia d’Alcantara, a minor fortress to the south of the Tagus. Without much resistance, the fortress capitulated and the Portuguese army stormed in. The fortress was raided and destroyed by the Portuguese afterwards. The initial plan of the Grand Alliance, to draw the local Spanish towards the cause of Charles, was struck yet again with the vicious raiding of the settlement. The level of hate the foreign invaders have spread was clear after the ultimatum on the small town of Albuquerque. The locals were demanded to declare for Charles, yet the locals responded by stating that they would die for Philip V if needed but join the Habsburgs. The town was captured on May 21. The next move of the Portuguese army was to attack the fortress of Badajoz. In September, 1705, allied forces approached the Spanish fortress, though Tessé was informed of the allied advance and had strengthened the garrisons of the fortress. The siege began in October, 1705, yet the garrisons were strong and the siege soon proved to be a disaster for the Portuguese army. Heavy bombardment soon began towards the fortress, but no outcome was received as the Spanish garrisons were brave. Meanwhile, Marshall Tessé was planning to strike the siege from behind. On October 14, the French marshall approached the siege of Badajoz and after a bloody battle, managed to force the Portuguese retreat. The Portuguese army withdrew from Spanish borders in disarray, with its commanders looking for ones to blame.
Meanwhile, a fresh brigade of troops was raised by the British. The British commanders sought to transfer the fresh army into Italy to start a new campaign with Eugene of Savoy. The fleet carrying the brigade was to make a stop at Gibraltar to resupply, though Prince George, admiral of the British Royal Navy, urged a landing to be attempted, for an early triumph in Spain would heavily damage the Bourbon authority in Iberia. The target of the British naval invasion was determined to be Barcelona. Barcelona was a major settlement in Catalonia, the populace of which had been deprived of their rights for centuries, and Catalans did not seem to be pleased by the new French ruler in Spain. Presumably, the conquest of Catalonia would grant the Grand Alliance the support of the Catalan populace, for the local population tended to side with those promising to restore their rights and that, the Grand Alliance did. Though, there was one significant issue for the conquest of Barcelona: the Spanish viceroy of the town, Don Velasco. Don Velasco was a man of authority and his garrison was powerful. In Barcelona, those, even nobles, declaring for Charles were imprisoned or exiled by the orders of Don Velasco. The British were aware of the challenge awaiting them, yet Barcelona was the city that had the power to fully change the course of the war if captured. On August 22, 1705, the British army led by Archduke Charles landed on the shores near Barcelona. Just as hoped, much of the local populace near the landing point gathered to welcome the Habsburg claimant. The allies’ target to secure the path to Barcelona was the fort of Montjuic, a fort south of Barcelona. The fort was reinforced with around 1.000 garrison units, yet Fort Montjuic was the least of Don Velasco’s priorities, as he believed the attack would come from north of Barcelona. The attack on For Montjuic began in mid-September, 1705, with a heavy naval bombardment. The bombardment damaged most of the defenses and managed to kill the commander of the garrison, forcing the fort to capitulate soon after. The southern defences of Barcelona now defeated, Archduke Charles was free to attack the city. A total of 58 heavy artillery pieces were brought to land from the British fleet and were positioned to target the city defenses. A heavy bombardment began yet again and although the army did not have much experience, a breach on the city’s defenses was managed. Despite the stubborn attitude of Don Velasco until then, the viceroy realised the torment his garrison and he would face in case the allied armies stormed in Barcelona, which with the breach, seemed highly probable. Thus, on October 8, Don Velasco agreed to surrender Barcelona, leaving 6 days later with his garrison. The occupation of Barcelona was a major achievement for Archduke Charles, for the Catalans were hesitant to support Philip V and Barcelona was the best base for the start of his campaign for the throne. By late-September, finally, Archduke Charles was proclaimed Charles III in the town square of Barcelona.
The Habsburg claimant had officially proclaimed his rulership over the Spanish Empire and was not willing to stop his expedition. A major advantage Charles III managed to gain was the help of Spanish noblemen supporting the Habsburg descent. The loss of Barcelona was a significant problem for the Bourbon king, but it was believed that with no sources of consistent supplies, Charles III would be forced to retreat his huge army. What Philip V had forgotten, however, was that the noblemen were far more influential in Spain than expected, which was proved with the impressive campaign of Count Cifuntes, a renowned Spanish nobleman, managing to hostilize nearly the entirety of Catalonia against Philip V until the end of winter. With each town in Catalonia declaring for Charles III sooner or later, the Habsburg king no longer needed the supplies for his army from Lisbon or London. The attempt to retrieve Barcelona was expected from Philip V, but with wide rebellions around the settlement, maneuvering and maintaining a sufficient supply stock was nearly impossible, thus dissuading Tessé from initiating an operation. The Spanish forces had other matters to deal with at the time as well. The Catholic population in Spain had risen against their Protestant French king. The militia group called the camisards ignited various rebellions across Spain, though was not capable of resisting against equipped and organized royal armies. Berwick was among those who were assigned to the suppression of the camisards and his was one of the most intimidating of suppressions. The commander expressed his desire to respond to violence with violence, and he did.
After his successful operation against camisards in Spain, Berwick was ordered to depart to Savoy to capture Nice. Berwick approached the settlement on October 31, 1705, with some 8.000 troops. The governor of the city was demanded to submit, yet the city chose to resist. Berwick, renowned for his vicious campaign against the camisards, laid siege on the fortress. Only after a breach was made in the defenses that the governor chose to surrender, which was on January 6, 1706. Berwick was promoted to a marshall of France after his success in the battlefield.
After the great success of Marlborough in Blenheim, the Bavarian and French fronts seemed to have calmed down. The opportunity gave Louis XIV and Maximilian II time to repair the damage to their nations. No supporters of Philip V had the capability to continue clashing with the enemy, thus leaving France, Bavaria and Spain in defensive positions for a period of time. On May 5, 1705, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Leopold I, passed away. Succeeding him came his eldest son, Joseph I. The death of the emperor had caused disarray and concern amongst the armies and commanders, yet Joseph was trusted and the crisis was managed to be overcome. The period of rest helped Louis XIV rebuild his armies, holding up to 200.000 troops by the end of 1705. Meanwhile, a bloody uprising unfolded in Austria after the death of Leopold I. The rebellion, known as Rákóczi’s War of Independence, broke out in Northern Hungary and Austria had to halt their campaigns in Northern Italy to deal with the Hungarian rebels.
Marshall Villars, with his 50.000 troops, arrived at Metz to prepare defenses in the Moselle against allied operations. The Duke of Marlborough had seized the upper-hand in Alsace and his intentions were to advance into French possessions, the path of which followed through Moselle. The duke planned to join his forces with those of Baden and march from Landau towards Alsace. As Marlborough advanced, the Dutch commander Overkirk was to hold the borders of Holland against any French operations. It did not unfold as planned, however, and Baden, due to disarray and ill-discipline of his troops, had to leave the forces of Marlborough and gather a fresh army of his own. Duke of Marlborough encamped his forces in Trier, waiting for the arrival of the Austrian commander, but Baden did not seem to be hasty in his departure and the Anglo-Dutch army of Marlborough, around 60.000-strong, was soon to run out of supplies. Thus, the duke moved towards the Moseley Valley to confront Villars. Having been reinforced with the forces under Marshall Marsin, Villars had approximately 70.000 troops under his command. The chances of Marlborough succeeding in combat against Villars was reducing every day. On June 13, 1705, however, the French commander initiated a surprise attack and seized the fortress of Huy in the Upper Rhine, which Overkirk was defending with his considerably minor Dutch garrison. Villars managed to capitulate and forced the withdrawal of the Dutch force. After the French offensive, Overkirk quickly wrote to the Duke of Marlborough, asking him to return to the Upper Rhine. The reinforced allied army of 60.000 under Marlborough began their march towards Villars who had advanced towards Liege to defeat Dutch garrisons. Informed of the allied approach, Villers fell back, yet the upper-hand was clearly at the French as after Marlborough left Trier, the forces he had deployed for the garrisons fell back on their own, leaving Trier empty. By late-June, Trier was also captured by Villars. Abandoning his plan to strike the enemy in the Moselle Valley, Marlborough decided to attack from Barbant, the Dutch border. The offensive was rather successful, with Marlborough engaging Villeroi in the field and pushing him back.
The situation also did not seem so bright for the Grand Alliance in Northern Italy. The French commander, Vendôme, had proceeded within the area and the French superiority over the Imperial army was clear. Eugene of Savoy, leader of the Imperial War Council, took direct command in the frontier and although the Austrians held around 40.000 against the 80.000-strong French, Eugene was assured of his triumph.
By the start of 1706, Louis XIV had become utterly confident of his power in the war. He believed that the victories of enemy commanders such as Marlborough, were only those won with fortune and that their fortune had run out. The French king was planning to force the Grand Alliance into negotiations soon and more conquest was to bring more benefit, driving the French king to act unwisely. Louis XIV issued an order for the commanders of the French army to strike on all fronts.
Berwick had managed to capture Nice, Vendôme was successful in his campaign in Northern Italy, Marshall Tessè was sent reinforcements and Villeroi had over 70.000 forces around the Rhine. On May 19, 1706, the French commander sought to block the possible allied advance and moved towards the settlement of Namur to protect it. Informed of the French maneuver, Marlborough approached to capture the area before Villeroi arrived, yet the French commander was faster. On May 23, Marlborough was informed that the French army had positioned 3 miles from the allied forces. There were 62.000 troops under Marlborough’s command, yet the French numbers were similar and they were positioned in highly defensive fortifications. The terrain, however, granted the allied forces a huge opportunity. With the orders of Marlborough, heavy cavalrymen were sent to attack the French positions from the flanks. Meanwhile, Marlborough started his advance with the main body of the army. Heavy casualties were taken on both sides with the immense bombardment, yet Villeroi was late to realise the incoming flank attacks of the cavalry. According to the recorded expressions of those witnessing the attack, the cavalry approaching the flank swept through the entire army from end to end and many allied troops report seeing thousands of French soldiers running around in disarray. With the wise planning of Marlborough, a huge war was won in favor of the Grand Alliance.
The defeat was brutal for the French. The army was in such disarray that Villeroi had to abandon many strategic fortresses and fall back far from the allied forces to re-organize. Marlborough initiated one of the most rapid expeditions of the war, capturing a huge part of the Spanish Netherlands in under 3 weeks. The most important asset of the Spanish Empire in Europe was now lost with the victory of Marlborough. With the exception of Namur, Mons and a couple of more settlements, the entire Spanish Low Countries was lost. The offensives on other fronts were cancelled due to the grand defeat in the Rhine. Louis XIV sadly replaced his old friend, Marshall Villeroi, with Duc de Vendôme who had proved his capability with his victories in Italy. While in Italy, after Vendôme left, the French armies were laying siege to Turin. Eugene of Savoy, directly assuming command, gathered his forces and attacked the French forces, driving them back after a heroic battle that killed Marshall Marsin. After the defeat in Turin, the French army had to retreat back to the French frontiers, abandoning Italy. After Eugene was informed of the withdrawal, he is reported to have said to his cousin: “Italy is ours, Cousin.”.
The Grand Alliance had achieved all of their intentions and the war was won militarily, as they thought. The only remaining objective was to force France into peace. Though in London and Vienna, Spain was still a matter of concern as they wanted Archduke Charles on the Spanish throne. With a disagreement between members of the Grand Alliance, with Great Britain and Austria wishing to continue the war until Spain was secured and others wishing peace, the war continued. The next target of the Grand Alliance was Spain and Philip V.
In early-April, Philip V ordered an operation to retake Barcelona. Meanwhile, the Duke of Berwick was sent back to Spain with the request of Philip V. Marshall Tessé, with around 20.000 troops, approached Barcelona. The siege was laid and efforts to breach the walls were made, but on May 10, 1706, allied reinforcements were landed near Barcelona. The supplies of the French army were already constantly raided by camisards present in the region and now with the landing of reinforcements, the French had to fall back. Another failure of the French operations had unfolded and overall, the French morale, both that of its commanders and soldiers, was heavily struck. By April, 1706, Anglo-Dutch forces joined by Portuguese battalions began an expedition from the Portuguese frontier to capture Madrid. Berwick managed to gather around 15.000 forces, rushing to the defenses of the Portuguese frontier. He confronted Das Minas near Alcántara and a heavy fighting began. Berwick was heavily outnumbered and his army had no supply to continue defending their positions. Alcántara fell in early-May to the armies under Das Minas. Das Minas continued the expedition, seizing significant bases along his route to Salamanca. With the news arriving that the siege of Barcelona was lifted, the armies captured Salamanca, which included a major supply depot, in celebration on June 7, 1706. Failing to hinder the allied offensive, Berwick withdrew his forces to Madrid on around June 15. Having been informed of Berwick’s retreat, Das Minas initiated a thorough advance towards the capital of Spain, capturing minor to major settlements along the way. It was then suggested by the widow-queen that the king departed Madrid, for it was greatly at risk. Philip V was to be taken to Burgos for his security, though militias and camisards were seeking opportunities to raid Spanish convoys, thus the king would be needing protection. Berwick had only 14.000 forces and to protect the king, he joined Philip’s convoy to Burgos while trying to reinforce the garrisons of major settlements. Madrid was evacuated by the nobles and the king, unprotected against the impending Anglo-Dutch attack. On June 27, 1706, Madrid was stormed by the forces of Das Minas. For the second time, Archduke Charles was proclaimed Charles III, this time in Madrid. Unlike in Aragon, the local populace was not as welcoming as the allied soldiers hoped, with most of them leaving the city and most expressing their disturbance of foreigners. Similar to Madrid, the settlements captured by Das Minas were unfriendly towards the occupation. Soon came a chance for the French to restore their power in Spain, the local populace rose in rebellion for Philip V. Madrid was amongst those with the most vicious rebellions. Facing immense opposition and rebellion, allied forces withdrew from Madrid, leaving a minor garrison to delay the French who retook control on September 4, 1706. The allied armies were reinforced with British squadrons arriving from the seas and retreated to Valencia with around 12.000 soldiers on October 1. Philip V entered Madrid again on October 4 and was widely welcomed by the locals. With French reinforcements arriving and the allied armies exhausted from months of fighting in harsh terrain, Franco-Spanish armies managed to retake most of Spain’s lost assets in Castile until the end of 1706. Both armies went into winter quarters and fighting was over for a period in Spain.
Neither the French nor Austria had the power to maintain their campaigns in Italy and Emperor Joseph was satisfied with the advance of Eugene. On March 13, 1707, a treaty to cease combat in Italy was signed between Louis XIV and Emperor Joseph.
In April, 1707, the allied forces in Valencia numbered around 12.000 and their commander, Galway, ordered a march towards the fortress in Villena. The siege began and without a strong garrison, the fortress was soon near capitulation. While the siege continued, Galway received information that Berwick had moved out and positioned his troops near the small town of Almaza. The allied forces were not aware of the French numbers — Berwick had around 25.000 — and Galway wanted to confront the French commander in open field to land a brutal blow to the enemy armies, thus eliminating most of the defenses in Spain. Galway stopped the siege of Villena and moved towards the French positions in Almaza. On April 25, 1707, allied armies approached the town. Galway did not prioritize reconnaissance and was not aware of the French numbers. The commander blindly drove his armies towards Berwick and faced a catastrophic scene in Almaza. Allied forces were heavily outnumbered and were forced to retreat back to Valencia after a bloodshed. Most of the guns and equipment of Galway’s army was lost and only 6.000 men fit for battle were left in the allied army. It was apparent that Valencia could no longer be defended after such a brutal loss and Galway, reinforcing his army from the garrisons of surrounding settlements, withdrew to Catalonia with some 10.000 troops. By early-May, the French forces previously fighting in Italy arrived at the support of Berwick. It was crucial to capture Valencia in order to secure Madrid from future operations and with the reinforcements arriving, Berwick attacked Valencia, forcing the city to yield on May 8. The French pursued the retreating allied army with caution and managed to capture many Catalonian settlements which declared support, previously, for Charles III.
There was significant progress for the French on the Rhine as well. Marshall Villars managed to break through the defensive lines, Lines of Stollhofen, of the allied forces on May 22. The Austrian general who was brutally wounded in Blenheim, the Margrave of Baden, had passed away by then. Replacing him, Margrave of Bayreuth was appointed. Bayreuth did not have the adequate numbers to confront Villars, thus being forced to retreat. By June 8, Villars had captured Stuttgart. The newly appointed Bayreuth was indecisive and confused. Marlborough soon wrote to him, stating that he should unite the Imperial Armies under one grand force to confront the enemy. The forces of minor to major imperial estates started gathering at Philippsburg. By the instructions of Louis XIV, Villars crossed the Rhine to enter winter quarters and no clear engagement unfolded during the period.
One of the key goals of the Grand Alliance was to destroy the French navy from the beginning of the war. The plan to attack Toulon, known to be the base of the French navy, had long waited to be executed, yet it was not until July, 1707, that the Grand Alliance found the opportunity to initiate the offensive. The army of Eugene moved towards the French frontier with around 35.000 forces in mid-July. Tessé learned about Eugene’s march and hastily gathered his forces to move to Toulon. The French marshall was the first to arrive at the settlement and when the Imperial Army arrived on July 26, they faced French soldiers positioned in defensive fortifications. Tessé had the clear advantage as Marshall Berwick had dispatched forces from Spain to help Toulon and the imperial forces were in critical supply shortage. After minor clashes, Eugene ordered the withdrawal of his armies. In mid-August, the allied armies began their retreat and Tessé chose not to initiate a pursuit. Although the fortress could not be captured, the Grand Alliance had achieved their major goal in Toulon. The French garrisons informed of Eugene’s march decided to burn the French fleet anchored in the ports of Toulon to prevent the ships from being captured.
Around June, 1707, in the Low Countries, somewhat of a stalemate was achieved. The French were highly cautious and were given direct orders to avoid engagement by Louis XIV. Duc de Vendôme had encamped his army in Gembloux and did not seem willing to depart. The Duke of Marlborough, seeking opportunities to catch French armies in open fields, was left without options. Neither could he attack Gembloux while outnumbered nor lay siege on any other fortress, for Vendôme was awaiting chances to eliminate the Anglo-Dutch armies. The battle had turned into a period of waiting for enemy errors in the Low Countries. The attack on Toulon, however, concerned Louis XIV and drove him to order 10.000 troops from the command of Vendôme to be sent to aid Toulon. Now his numerical superiority gone and Marlborough marching towards his defenses, Vendôme had to withdraw from Gembloux to the French border, behind the River Marque. When Marlborough was planning to strike Vendôme, the weather conditions became extremely favorable for the French. Pouring rain and blistering cold swept across Northern France and the Low Countries, hindering the maneuvers of both commanders. Thus as the year ended, both armies went off to winter quarters and waited for further opportunities in the following year. The year 1707 came with huge consequences to the Grand Alliance. Having lost what prospered in 1706, the Grand Alliance lost their significant moral advantage against the French who were fueled by the consecutive victories in all fronts.
One of the most important allied advantages throughout the war was their naval dominance. The Mediterranean was ruled by the Royal Navy and the French and Spanish ships were being hunted across the sea. To further consolidate their naval supremacy, the British sought to capture Sardinia, a crucial island for the control of the Mediterranean sea. The occupation of Sardinia would cut off the naval routes of Spain with its Italian lands and would grant the British navy total control of the region. Thus in September, 1708, the Royal Navy landed forces in Sardinia, capturing the entire island in around a single month.
In Northern France, Marlborough was awaiting the Eugene of Savoy to commence his offensive. Their armies were planned to combine and move to confront the enemy, yet the departure of Eugene was delayed due to internal affairs of Austria. Until Eugene arrived, Marlborough had no chance to prevail if he chose to engage with the French army and he remained defensive. In July, 1708, significant towns of Ghent and Brugez in the Low Countries were captured by Vendôme. Receiving the news of Eugene’s arrival, Marlborough set forth to confront Vendôme. On July 11, 1707, Marlborough and Eugene defeated Vendôme in a bloody battle. The casualties were heavy for France, but the marshall managed to return to his defensive position behind the river. By then, marshall Berwick had arrived in Northern France to join Vendôme. The allied forces had to find a way to confront the French army in the open, or just to lure them out of their positions. Marlborough and Eugene planned to move towards the major French fortress of Lillie, against which Vendôme had to respond, for otherwise, Paris would be in danger. The allies reached Lillie in late-August, soon after Marshall Boufflers who was assigned to command the garrisons of the fortress by Louis XIV. The siege was laid and heavy fighting began between the two sides in Lillie. With constant raids of French cavalry on the supply convoys from Brussels, the allied armies struggled to make progress with the siege. The fortress was already highly fortified and even a breach was only made after 4 months of fighting. After the immense fighting for over 4 months, on October 25, 1708, the garrisons could no longer hold and Lillie capitulated to Marlborough and Eugene.
The new year had arrived and Europe faced one of the most disastrous winters which held its effects until March, 1709. It was reported that wine would freeze in the bottles and livestock was largely killed by the blistering cold. The common folk, already troubled by the catastrophic effects of the ongoing war, were now challenged even further by the harsh weather conditions. Europeans sought an end to the war that was now in its 8th year, yet the powers of Europe still seemed unsatisfied with the situation. At some point, the food shortage was so critical in Spain that Philip V opened the Spanish ports to any trader who would bring corn and grain into the country. Negotiations had begun amongst the sides, but progress was yet to be made, considering the exaggerated demands of both parties.
With the new year came another achievement of Philip V in Spain. Alicante was taken back from the British invaders and the allied presence in Spain was slowly being eliminated by Philip V and the French commanders. There remained a major concern for the Spanish front, however, as Louis XIV was obliged to recall his reinforcements from Spain to aid the defenses in Northern France. The forces in Spain were not enough to maintain the campaign of Philip V and the allies were expected to deploy reinforcements soon. The treasure of the French Empire was nearly empty, however, and Louis XIV did not have any chance to replace his casualties, thus the forces had to remain in France to protect it.
On May 7, 1709, another Portuguese march across the Spanish frontier was attempted with around 15.000 soldiers under Marquis de Frontiera. The army was confronted by the Spanish forces under Marquis de Bay. The Spanish commander defeated the Portuguese army and drove them back from the Spanish frontier. After the inconclusive clashes between the Iberian nations, a temporary truce was signed between Portugal and Spain, for the war greatly affected the agricultural activities of both nations and the food shortage was soon to cause starvation.
Another major battle unfolded in Northern France after the forces of Marlborough advanced and captured Tournai. Mons was attacked simultaneously and Louis XIV urged Villars to protect Mons no matter the cost. Villars advanced from his positions to confront the allied armies and on September 11, 1709, near the village of Malplaquet, a vicious battle was fought between the armies. With the allies suffering 20.000 casualties and the French 13.000, Villars had to withdraw his army, getting mortally wounded during the retreat. Mons fell in October, 1709, but the allies were given heavy casualties, much so that Marlborough was criticised for his command in the battle. In Spain, Philip V decided to personally attend his campaigns. With Marques de Villadarias, a campaign to retake the Catalonian settlements was initiated. The allied army confronted the forces of Philip V on July 27, near Almenara. Archduke Charles was also present in the opposing army and the two claimants confronted for the first time in the war. The allied army was superior, however, and defeated the forces of Philip V with ease. The king hardly saved his own life, retreating with his forces to Lérida. Later, after the defeat, Villadarias was replaced with Bay by Philip V. A pursuit began between the allied forces and Philip V, which lasted until August 20, 1709, when the allied armies caught the retreating Spanish forces. The battle was fought heroically, yet after the loss of nearly 10.000 of his troops, the young king was defeated once again. After such victories, Archduke Charles managed to capture most of Aragon and the road to Madrid was open. The king had left Madrid with his family once again and the archduke entered the capital of Spain on September 28, where he faced the same cold attitude from the locals. The Spanish campaign returned to the favour of the Spanish when Vendôme arrived in Spain. Taking with him the king, the French Marshall quickly captured many kost assets in Castile, growing his numbers with each captured city. Then on November 11, Vendôme managed to drive the archduke back from Madrid, escorting the king into the capital, for the second time now. Vendôme managed to initiate a highly successful campaign in Catalonia, taking most of the Spanish assets back from British invaders. Though, in late 1710, the French marshall was out of both men and supplies, thus ceasing the offensive and taking defensive positions.
No nations were strong enough to continue fighting in 1712 and most of the previous 2 years had been spent with negotiations of peace. The Grand Alliance firmly wanted Philip V to abdicate the Spanish throne and thus, rejected many of the proposals of France. The question of the Spanish throne was mostly settled with the death of the Emperor Joseph, in April, 1711. Archduke Charles was elected the Emperor on October 2, 1711, having to abandon his claim on the Spanish throne. Despite efforts of gaining as much land as possible to enter the negotiations with an advantage, not much fighting unfolded between the sides. A resolution was finally reached between France and Great Britain in autumn, 1711. Negotiations were now constant and it was accepted by the Grand Alliance that Philip V would maintain his rule. At last, the Treaties of Utrecht were signed amongst the powers on April 11, 1713, and peace was brought to Europe after 13 years of war.
On the day of April 11th, 1713, the finalization of the peace treaties were signed in the city of Utrecht between England, Holland, Prussia, Portugal, Savoy and France. According to the treaty, the French had recognized the Protestant succession in England and gave the final decision to finalize their assistance to the Stuarts. At the same time, the French gave control over Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, the Island of Saint Kitts, and the Hudson Bay territory to the English control and assured the destruction of the fortifications located in the city of Dunkirk. The Treaty between the Anglo and French was supplemented with a Treaty of Commerce. In this treaty with the Dutch, France agreed that United Provinces should annex part of Genderland and should retain it as a barrier against any future French invasion. At the same time, certain stated fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands were assigned to the emperor when he signed the peace treaty. Similar to the treaty signed with the English, the Dutch also privileged with the similar decisions as the English. On the other hand, in the treaty signed with Prussia, the French recognized Frederick I’s royal title as the King of Prussia in the year of 1701 and his jurisdiction over several small territories within Europe including the regions of Neuchatel and Upper Gelderland. After this negotiation, in return, the French gained control over the Principality of Orange. With the treaties with the Duke of Savoy, French accepted that he should rule the cities of Nice and Sicily and at the same time, in the treaty with the Portuguese, French recognized the sovereignty of the Portuguese on both banks of the Amazon River.
On the other hand, while many peace treaties were being signed between many states, a peace treaty between the Spanish and its opponents was not signed until a few months later to the treaties that were signed previously. However, in the Asiento Agreement between the British and Spanish, Spain gave the exclusive right of supplying the Spanish colonies with Enslaved people to the British jurisdiction. At last, on July 13, 1713, in the city of Utrecht, the treaty of peace was finally concluded. In the treaty, it was decided that the control over the cities of Gibraltar and Minorca will be given to the British and to cede the city of Sicily to Savoy. By July 1713, many peace treaties were still delayed, and Louis XIV was sharply critical of Philip for holding up the negotiations with the Dutch and for quibbling over the terms already conceded to Savoy. On the day of August 13th, 1713, the treaty with the Spanish and Savoy was concluded with the coordination of Victor Amadeus II to the modifications made by Philip in order to secure the control of the city of Sicily. However, the treaty between the Spanish and the Dutch was delayed until June 26, 1714 and on the other hand, the treaty with the Portuguese was delayed until February 1715. However, even when the negotiations were completed, this did not mean that general pacifications were completed which resulted in the emperor remaining in war both with France and with Spain. Between the years of 1712 and 1713, in the Battles of Denain, Rhine lost Landau and Freiburg, Eugene was defeated. On the day of March 7th, 1714, the Emperor established a peace treaty with France at Rastatt. As decided in the treaty, the emperor regained control over the cities of Breisach, Kehl, and Freiburg. In return ceded the controls of the cities of Strasbourg and Alsace to France and allowed France’s allies, the electors of Bavaria and Cologne, to recover their possessions which were lost after the war. In addition, the emperor was recognized by France as ruler of the former Spanish possessions of the cities of Milan, Tuscany, Naples, the Spanish Netherlands, and Sardinia. On September 7, 1714, the princes of the Empire accepted these peace conditions and established the Treaty of Baden with the French. On November 15, 1715, the treaty of Third Barrier was established between the United Provinces and the emperor laid down that seven fortresses near the French border cities were to be garrisoned by the Dutch. This treaty, also known as a barrier, was also accepted by the British command.
On April 11, 1713, when the Treaties of Utrecht was signed between the European Powers and Spain, to restore the continental balance of power, the fate of Spain was decided. By the request of Charles II, once the new Bourbon Prince Philip of Anjou became the King of Bourbon Spain, he retained the Spanish overseas Empire, but ceded the Spanish Netherlands, Naples, Milan, and Sardinia to Austria; Sicily and parts of the Milanese to Savoy; and Gibraltar and Minorca to Great Britain. As a result, he turned his back on European Territories and control and he even gave the authorization to the British to slave the trading ships in Spanish America for thirty years as well as giving the permission to license voyages to ports in Spanish colonial dominions which resulted in pathways for smuggling to be opened.
With a Bourbon monarch came a repertory of Bourbon mercantilist ideas based on a centralized monarchy, put into effect in America slowly at first but increasing momentum during the century. The Spanish Bourbons’ broadest intentions were to break the power of the entrenched creole aristocracies, and, eventually, loosen the territorial control of the Society of Jesus too: the Jesuits were expelled from Spanish America in 1767. In addition to the established consulados of Mexico City and Lima, firmly in the control of local landowners, a new rival consulado was set up at Vera Cruz.
After these improvements, Philip’s command established a new set of ministries of the Navy and the Indies. After that, created a Honduras Company in 1714, a Caracas Company in 1728 and a Havana Company in 1740. Between the years of 1717 and 1718, the governing structures of the Indies, the Consejo de Indias and the Casa de la Contratación that controlled the investments in the escorted fleets were transported from the city of Seville to Cadiz, which made Cadiz the one and only port for all Indies Trading. However, till the 1760s, individual sailings between Atlantic and Cadiz were slow due to old habits of the sailing convoys. However, from the 1760’s, regular packet ships were assigned to the Atlantic Routes which fixed the slow schedule of the passing ships. The contraband trade that was the lifeblood of the Habsburg Empire declined in proportion to registered shipping as well. On the other hand, in the Americas, two upheavals registered unease within Spanish America and at the same time demonstrated the renewed resiliency of a reformed system. These were caused by the Tupac Amaru uprising in Peru Region which took place in 1780 and the Rebellious activities took place in Venezuela Region the same year. These opposing activities were both made in part reactions to tighter, more efficient control. Due to these opposing activities to Spanish from within Europe and Americas, in the 18th Century, Spain was hardly a superpower and more of a Client State of France. While their jurisdictions were large and increasing every single day in the Americas, they were anywhere near the ranks of Austria or Russia, let alone France or England during the same period. During this period, due to insufficient personnel within Europe, Spain would never take control of Gibraltar, however, the 18th Century would be a prosperous age for the overseas Spanish Empire which would assist the Spanish Empire to recover in a fast and effective form. In the year of 1769, the California Mission planning was begun. In Europe, in the year of 1791, The Nootka Convention resolved the issues between Spain and Great Britain about the British settlement in Oregon to British Columbia. At the same time, the King of Spain gave an order to search for Northwest passageways for future trading and transportation.
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